Informal Student-Faculty Interaction: Its Relationship to Educational Gains in Science and Mathematics Among Community College Students.Abstracts The central purpose of this study was to examine the connection between informal student-faculty interaction, the perceived quality of effort asserted in science courses, and perceived educational gains in science-and mathematics-based courses for community college students within the context of Pace's (1979) concept of social and academic involvement. Pace's "quality of effort" concept of social and academic involvement assumes that the effects of college on students' differential patterns of growth and development can be assessed through the efforts students expend ex·pend tr.v. ex·pend·ed, ex·pend·ing, ex·pends 1. To lay out; spend: expending tax revenues on government operations. See Synonyms at spend. 2. in utilizing the resources provided by higher education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. institutions. A path analytic an·a·lyt·ic or an·a·lyt·i·cal adj. 1. Of or relating to analysis or analytics. 2. Expert in or using analysis, especially one who thinks in a logical manner. 3. Psychoanalytic. model is proposed for the present study operationalizing constructs developed from previous research on the positive influences of informal student-faculty interaction on students' academic achievement in science and mathematics. This examination tested the hypothesized model's applicability in the study of the disparity dis·par·i·ty n. pl. dis·par·i·ties 1. The condition or fact of being unequal, as in age, rank, or degree; difference: "narrow the economic disparities among regions and industries" between men and women persisting per·sist intr.v. per·sist·ed, per·sist·ing, per·sists 1. To be obstinately repetitious, insistent, or tenacious. 2. in science- and mathematics-based majors. Academic Environments & Informal Student-Faculty Interaction The importance and influence of informal student-faculty interaction on the differential patterns of student learning and growth has been documented for decades (see, for example, Feldman Feldman is a common Ashkenazi Jewish surname. Some notable people it may refer to include:
British naturalist who developed a concept of evolution that paralleled the work of Charles Darwin. , 1966). Other studies have revealed evidence that informal student-faculty interaction plays an important role in the learning environment (Churukian, 1982; Cooper, Stewart Stewart, river, Canada Stewart, river, 331 mi (533 km) long, rising in the Mackenzie Mts., central Yukon Territory, Canada, and flowing generally W to the Yukon River S of Dawson. , & Gudykunst, 1982; Davis & Young, 1982; Feldman, 1983; Rogers, 1962; Theophilides & Terenzini, 1981). These studies found that the instructional quality and value of the learning environment is related to the quality of the interpersonal relationship This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details. This article has been tagged since September 2007. between the faculty member and student. For example, the more accessible an instructor is in sharing experiences, ideas, research, and personal time outside the classroom, the more effective the instructor (Churukian, 1982; Feldman, 1983). In turn, the degree of effectiveness and accessibility of an instructor has also been noted as a positive influence on the academic performance and overall institutional satisfaction for students (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Those students who have developed interpersonal relationships with faculty members tend to reveal higher degrees of academic skills development. They were also more satisfied with their institutional experiences (Nauta Nauta is a bustling small town situated in the northeastern area of the Peruvian Amazon roughly 100km south of the Province's capital, Iquitos. Established by Pacaya–Samiria--a leader of the Cocama peoples following the 1830 uprising at the Jesuit mission of Lagunas, Nauta , Epperson, & Kahn Kahn , Louis Isadore 1901-1974. Estonian-born American architect whose bold monumental designs include the Yale University Art Gallery (1954) and the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas (1972). Noun 1. , 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1976, 1991). Gender, Science, & Mathematics It has been well documented in recent research that women in higher education earn fewer undergraduate and graduate degrees in science- and mathematics-based majors than men (Barber A barber (from the Latin barba, "beard") is someone whose occupation is to cut any type of hair, give shaves, and trim beards. In previous times, barbers also performed surgery and dentistry. , 1995; Ethington, 1988; Hilton Hil·ton , Conrad Nicholson 1887-1979. American hotel-chain organizer who acquired hotels in many American cities and in 1946 founded the Hilton Hotel Corporation. & Lee, 1988; Maple & Stage, 1991). Much of that research has focused primarily on gender differences in academic self-confidence. The accumulated ac·cu·mu·late v. ac·cu·mu·lat·ed, ac·cu·mu·lat·ing, ac·cu·mu·lates v.tr. To gather or pile up; amass. See Synonyms at gather. v.intr. To mount up; increase. evidence suggests that students' self-perception self-per·cep·tion n. An awareness of the characteristics that constitute one's self; self-knowledge. of academic ability and the confidence they assert in scholarly activities is highly related to their degree of attainment in science and mathematics. In addition, academic self-confidence ratings tend to be more instrumental in science and mathematics achievement for women than for men (Alper Alper is a common Turkish man's first name. It is composed of the two words alp and er the first of which means brave or hero, and the second er means soldier or male(1). , 1993; Astin & Sax (Simple API for XML) A programming interface (API) for accessing the contents of an XML document. SAX does not provide a random access lookup to the document's contents. It scans the document sequentially and presents each item to the application only one time. , 1994; Betz Betz may refer to:
However, the research also suggests that gender differences in the self-confidence of students in science and mathematics are related to academic environmental factors--formal and informal student-faculty interaction (Leder, 1992; Santiago & Einarson, 1998; Seymour, 1995; Stage & Kloosterman, 1995). Many of the studies found no significant differences in the academic achievement between men and women prior to their entering their respective programs. Hence, further investigation of academic environmental factors, specifically informal student-faculty interaction within science and mathematics courses, is needed to ascertain why more women than men opt to leave science- and mathematics-based majors during college. Gender & Academic Environments Research on the disparity between men and women who enroll in and complete science- and mathematics-based courses and majors has pointed to a number of potential causes. The causes include the learning environment, teaching style, loss of interest in science and mathematics, and in female students, diminished di·min·ish v. di·min·ished, di·min·ish·ing, di·min·ish·es v.tr. 1. a. To make smaller or less or to cause to appear so. b. self-confidence (Astin, 1993; Barber, 1995; Beer & Darkenwald, 1989; Manis Manis see pangolin. , Sloat, Thomas (language) Thomas - A language compatible with the language Dylan(TM). Thomas is NOT Dylan(TM). The first public release of a translator to Scheme by Matt Birkholz, Jim Miller, and Ron Weiss, written at Digital Equipment Corporation's Cambridge Research Laboratory runs , & Davis, 1989; Rosser, 1990). A similar study by Seymour (1995), based on a three-year ethnographic eth·nog·ra·phy n. The branch of anthropology that deals with the scientific description of specific human cultures. eth·nog examination of 460 students, found the following as contributing factors to the disparity between men and women in science and math: 1) women felt excluded by faculty in class activities; 2) large classes were too impersonal im·per·son·al adj. 1. Lacking personality; not being a person: an impersonal force. 2. a. Showing no emotion or personality: an aloof, impersonal manner. ; 3) teachers were unapproachable and intimidating in·tim·i·date tr.v. in·tim·i·dat·ed, in·tim·i·dat·ing, in·tim·i·dates 1. To make timid; fill with fear. 2. To coerce or inhibit by or as if by threats. ; 4) lack of feedback and encouragement on performance; and 5) excessive competition for grades. This evidence supports previous research which indicates that women prefer a supportive social climate, have a greater interest in personal relationships, and expect positive interactions with faculty members to improve academic growth and development (Beer & Darkenwald, 1989; Belenky, Clincher clinch·er n. 1. One that clinches, as: a. A nail, screw, or bolt for clinching. b. A tool for clinching nails, screws, or bolts. 2. , Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982). Two recent studies provide further evidence of the importance of the learning environment and the interactions between female students and faculty. One study examined the differential impact of academic and social experiences on college outcomes. Initially, Nora, Cabrera, Hagedorn, and Pascarella (1996) found that the importance of institutional factors in predicting persistence (1) In a CRT, the time a phosphor dot remains illuminated after being energized. Long-persistence phosphors reduce flicker, but generate ghost-like images that linger on screen for a fraction of a second. for women was reflected through the amount and quality of their social integration or interpersonal relationships with fellow students and interactions with faculty members, both formal and informal. Additionally, Nora et al. note that informal relationships between faculty and female students are "more important for women early in their college careers" (p. 445). Another study (Kuh, Pace, & Vesper, 1997) found that active learning and cooperation were the best predictors of gains for both men and women. In addition, it was noted that "all types of institutions need to be sensitive to how the nature and the quality of their interactions with students--especially females--affect student learning" (p. 447). The evidence noted from the above-reviewed studies clearly points to the importance of informal student-faculty interaction to the differential patterns of persistence, growth, and development of female college students in science- and mathematics-based courses and majors. The present study is similar; it investigates the effect of informal student-faculty interaction on the differential patterns of science and math gains of male and female college students. This present study differs from this earlier research, because it examines the effects of that interaction on the quality of effort students exert in science courses in order to gain a better understanding of the importance of informal faculty contact. Furthermore, the present study focused on students from two-year institutions in their first and second year of instruction. This has been documented as the most critical time (freshman and sophomore years) in which women make decisions as to whether they will continue in science- and mathematics-based courses and majors (Astin, 1993; Manis, Sloat, Thomas, & Davis, 1989; Nora, Cabrera, Hagedorn, & Pascarella, 1996; Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997; Seymour, 1995; Stage & Kloosterman, 1995). This examination addressed the need as identified by Kuh, Pace, and Vesper (1997) that a "closer look is warranted at how student-faculty interaction contributes to student learning in all institutional settings" (p. 448). The present study contributes to the above research on gender, informal student-faculty interaction, and the effect on students in science- and mathematics-based courses. Furthermore, it examines the assertions of the reviewed research (see, for example, Feldman & Newcomb, 1969; Nauta, Epperson, & Kahn, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997) that focuses on the importance and influence informal student-faculty interaction has on the patterns of growth and development in science and mathematics for students. Causal Model A causal model is an abstract model that uses cause and effect logic to describe the behaviour of a system. See also [IMG][1]]
A path analytic model was proposed for the present study that examines the three constructs. Four control variables also were included in the path model. The amount of time working at a job (timework time·work n. Work paid for at a rate per unit of time, as by the hour. time  work ), the
effect of family on schoolwork (family), and the effect of a job on
schoolwork (job) were used to control the amount of external influences
commonly experienced by students in community colleges.These were chosen as variables that may hinder hin·der 1 v. hin·dered, hin·der·ing, hin·ders v.tr. 1. To be or get in the way of. 2. To obstruct or delay the progress of. v.intr. the amount of time students have to interact with faculty outside the classroom. The fourth control variable, gender, was used to assess differences between men and women on their perceived amount of effort in science courses and educational gains in science and mathematics. The proposed path analytic model to be estimated is shown in Figure 1. The arrows indicate the paths of influence as supported by the previous research and as envisioned in the present study. Where no path is drawn, the effect is thought to be zero. (It should be noted that in the actual estimation estimation In mathematics, use of a function or formula to derive a solution or make a prediction. Unlike approximation, it has precise connotations. In statistics, for example, it connotes the careful selection and testing of a function called an estimator. of this model, all effects were estimated to determine if they were insignificant.) [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] The first four variables (job, family, timework, gender) are considered exogenous variables Exogenous variable A variable whose value is determined outside the model in which it is used. Related: Endogenous variable , while the subsequent variables in the model (informal student-faculty interaction, quality of effort in science courses, science and mathematics educational gains) are endogenous variables Endogenous variable A value determined within the context of a model. Related: Exogenous variable. . The job, family, and timework variables are seen to influence directly the informal student-faculty interaction variable by influencing the amount of available time community college students have to interact with faculty members outside of the classroom. The gender variable is seen to influence directly the quality of effort in science courses and science and mathematics educational gains. Quality of effort in science courses and science and mathematical educational gains are posited to be influenced directly by informal student-faculty interaction. Furthermore, the quality of effort in science courses variable is seen to influence directly the science and mathematics educational gains variable. The sequence of the variables in the model was based on Pace's (1979) theory that the effects of college on students' patterns of growth and development can be assessed through the efforts students expend in using the resources provided by higher education institutions. The present study controls external influences from family and work, interpersonal relationships with faculty, and students' effort in science and mathematics and academic growth and development. In addition, the importance of informal student-faculty interaction on academic growth and development was documented by Chickering and Gamson (1987) as one of the "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education undergraduate education Medtalk In the US, a 4+ yr college or university education leading to a baccalaureate degree, the minimum education level required for medical school admission; undergraduate medical education refers to the 4 yrs of medical school. Cf CME. ." Frequently referred to as "process indicators," these principles "... help focus faculty, staff, and students on those tasks and activities (informal student-faculty interaction) that are associated with higher yields in terms of desired student outcomes (higher perceived levels of science and mathematics educational gains)" (Kuh, Pace, & Vesper, 1997, p. 436). Methodology Instrumentation instrumentation, in music: see orchestra and orchestration. instrumentation In technology, the development and use of precise measuring, analysis, and control equipment. The Community College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CCSEQ) (Friedlander, Pace, & Lehman, 1990) was used for data collection for this study. The CCSEQ was selected as the instrument for this examination because of its strong psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties; its utility in assessing academic, intellectual, interpersonal in·ter·per·son·al adj. 1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills. 2. , and group experiences; and its appropriateness in reflecting the opportunities and experiences within two-year institutions based on student reports (Ethington & Polizzi, 1996). As stated by Pace (1995), "The CCSEQ is an instrument designed to fit the diversity of student characteristics, aims, experiences, and outcomes one finds in community colleges today" (p. 1). The content of the CCSEQ instrument focuses on components reflecting students' educational and vocational aspirations aspirations npl → aspiraciones fpl (= ambition); ambición f aspirations npl (= hopes, ambition) → aspirations fpl , perceptions about college, use of college resources, and advancement towards academic achievement and goals. Subjects The subjects for this study were based on a random sample of 5,276 full and part-time community college students (females = 2,638; males = 2,638) from 56 two-year institutions in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. from 1990-1994. Approximately 60% of the sample were transfer students and 40% were enrolled in vocational programs Noun 1. vocational program - a program of vocational education educational program - a program for providing education . The race and ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic of the students are as follows: 5% African-American; 10% Asian-American; 9% Hispanic-American; 1% Native American; 74% White; and 1% unknown. Forty-eight percent of the students were 22 years of age or younger; 18% were 23-27 years of age; 24% were 28-39 years of age; and 10% were 40 years or older. This random sample was taken from the CCSEQ national data set. Each subject sampled for the present study was selected based on completion of at least three science- or mathematics-based courses or both. This requisite was applied in the sampling to ensure that the students had an adequate amount of exposure to faculty within the science and mathematics disciplines. Variables Seven variables were obtained from the data. They reflect the students' degree of external influence, differences in relation to gender, informal interaction with faculty, quality of effort in science courses, and science and mathematics educational gains. A full description of the variables is provided in Appendix A. Timework: A 6-point scale reflecting the amount of hours the student spends at work in a week. Job: A 4-point scale reflecting how much time a student's job interferes with schoolwork. Family: A 4-point scale reflecting how much time a student's family interferes with schoolwork. Gender: A 2-point scale reflecting a student's gender. Student-Faculty Interaction: An 8-point scale reflecting the amount of time a student communicates with faculty members apart from the general classroom interaction. Quality of Effort in Science Courses: A 9-point scale reflecting the amount of effort a student exerts in science courses. Science and Mathematical Educational Gains: A 5-point scale reflecting a student's perceived amount of science and mathematical knowledge. Analysis Analyzing the means, standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. , and correlations given in Table 1, the causal causal /cau·sal/ (kaw´z'l) pertaining to, involving, or indicating a cause. causal relating to or emanating from cause. effects implied by the model were estimated with ordinary least squares procedures using GEMINI (Wolfe & Ethington, 1985), a FORTRAN program Noun 1. FORTRAN program - a program written in FORTRAN computer program, computer programme, programme, program - (computer science) a sequence of instructions that a computer can interpret and execute; "the program required several hundred lines of code" based on the work of Sobel (1992). Three types of effects resulted--direct, indirect, and total. The direct causal effects are represented by regression coefficients Regression coefficient Term yielded by regression analysis that indicates the sensitivity of the dependent variable to a particular independent variable. See: Parameter. regression coefficient , either standard (beta weights) or unstandard (b weights), and are interpreted in the usual manner. The indirect causal effects are estimated by the sums of the products of direct effects through intervening variables An intervening variable is a hypothetical concept that attempts to explain relationships between variables, and especially the relationships between independent variables and dependent variables. in the model.
Table 1
Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations (N=5,276)
1 2 3 4 5
Job 1.000 .079 .746 -.103 -.065
Family 1.000 .015 .234 .079
Timework 1.000 -.143 -.119
Gender 1.000 .061
Informal Student-
Faculty 1.000
Interaction
Quality of Effort
in Science
Courses
Science & Math
Gains
Means 2.52 2.30 3.42 1.50 16.55
St. Devs. .97 1.01 1.64 .50 4.62
6 7
Job -.026 -.053
Family .008 -.019
Timework -.118 -.091
Gender -.083 -.061
Informal Student-
Faculty .396 .343
Interaction
Quality of Effort
in Science 1.000 .425
Courses
Science & Math 1.000
Gains
Means 18.94 12.56
St. Devs. 6.73 3.33
These effects represent influences on the dependent variable that result from directly influencing prior causal variables in the model. The total effects are simply the sum of the direct and indirect effects. The relative influence of variables within an equation is determined by comparing the standard coefficients. Results The parameter (1) Any value passed to a program by the user or by another program in order to customize the program for a particular purpose. A parameter may be anything; for example, a file name, a coordinate, a range of values, a money amount or a code of some kind. estimates for the three equations defining the model are given in Table 2. Inspection of the final equation indicates that the variables explain 22% of the variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality in students' perceived science and mathematical gains as envisioned in the model.
Table 2
Direct Effects in Science and Math Educational Gains Mode(a)
Dependent Variables
5 6 7
.043 .120(*) 0.020
Job (.203) (.836) (-.070)
.071(*) -.002 -.026
Family (.326) (-.011) (-.086)
-.148(*) -.178(*) -.017
Timework (-.416) (-.730) (-.035)
.028 -.120(*) -.045(*)
Gender (.255) (1.61) (-.297)
Informal Student- 390(*) .212(*)
Faculty Interaction (.568) (.153)
Quality of Effort in 355(*)
Science (.166)
Science and Math
Gains
[R.sup.2] .022 .182 .221
(a) Metric coefficients are given in parentheses.
(*) p < .001
The direct effects of the job, family, and timework variables on the science and mathematics gains variable, which were assumed to be zero, are in accordance Accordance is Bible Study Software for Macintosh developed by OakTree Software, Inc.[] As well as a standalone program, it is the base software packaged by Zondervan in their Bible Study suites for Macintosh. with the path model (betas = -.020, -.026, and -.017, respectively). The gender variable has a significant negative direct effect on the science and mathematics gains variable (beta = -.045). This indicates that women reported lower perceived educational gains in science and mathematics than men (controlling for other variables in the model). The family and timework variables have a significant direct effect on informal student-faculty interaction (betas = .071 and -.148, respectively), while the job and gender variables have a nonsignificant non·sig·nif·i·cant adj. 1. Not significant. 2. Having, producing, or being a value obtained from a statistical test that lies within the limits for being of random occurrence. positive direct effect (betas = .043 and .028, respectively). The timework and gender variables have a significant negative direct effect on students' quality of effort in science courses (betas = -.178 and -.120, respectively). This indicates that the more time students spend at work, the less effort they exert in their science courses and that women report lower levels in the quality of effort exerted in science. On the other hand, the job variable has a significant positive direct effect on students' quality of effort in science (beta = .120). The indirect effects for the job and gender variables on science and mathematics gains are nominal (betas = .055 and -.031, respectively); yet both are statistically significant due to the large sample size (p [is less than] .001) (see Table 3). The indirect effect of the family variable on science and mathematics gains is not statistically significant (beta = .024). The time students spend at work, however, has a significant negative indirect effect (beta = -.110). Thus, the more time students spend at work, the less time they have to interact with faculty and exert effort in science courses, and in consequence, perceive lesser educational gains in science and mathematics.
Table 3
Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects of Variables on Science and
Mathematics Educational Gains(a)
Direct Indirect Total
-.020 .055(*) .035
Job (-.070) (.189) (.119)
-.026 .024 -.002
Family (-.086) (.079) (-.007)
-.017 -.110 -.127
Timework (-.035) (-.224) (-.259)
-.045(*) -.031(*) -.076(*)
Gender (-.297) (-.204) (-.501)
Informal Student- .212(*) .131(*) .343(*)
Faculty (.153) (.094) (.247)
Interaction
Quality of Effort .335(*) .335(*)
in Science (.166) (.166)
(a) Metric coefficients are given in parentheses
(*) p < .001
On the other hand, reports of students' indicating the extent to which their job interferes with schoolwork, has virtually no effect, direct or indirect. It is the amount of hours spent at work, rather than the job itself, that interferes with their interactions with faculty, their quality of effort in science courses, and educational gains in science and mathematics. The total effects of the exogenous variables (job, family, timework, gender) are not significant. The exception is the variable gender (beta = -.076), which clearly indicates significant differences between men and women in all three of the endogenous variables. Women have reported lower levels of informal interaction, course effort, and educational gains in science and mathematics than have men. The direct influence of the informal student-faculty interaction variable on students' science and mathematical gains is significant (beta = .212). The positive direct effect of informal student-faculty interaction indicates that community college students who have higher perceived levels of informal interaction with faculty in settings outside the classroom directly enhance their perceived educational gains in science and mathematics. The results of the present study are also consistent with the hypothesized model on the informal student-faculty interaction variable directly influencing the quality of effort community college students exert in science courses (beta = .390). Those students who have higher levels of informal interaction with faculty report higher levels of effort in science courses. The informal student-faculty interaction variable also has a significant positive indirect effect on the science and mathematical educational gains (beta = . 131). The direct effect of the quality of effort in science courses variable on science and mathematics educational gains is significant and positive (beta =. 335). Those community college students who exerted higher levels of effort in their science courses perceived greater educational gains in science and mathematics. Thus, from examining the direct effects of the six variables in the model on students' perceived educational gains in science and mathematics (see Table 2), the dominant direct effect comes from the quality of effort in science courses variable. The total effects represent the direct and indirect influences of the variables in the model. Informal student-faculty interaction has the greatest total influence of any variable (beta = .343). This is the result of having significant direct and indirect effects on the science and mathematics educational gains variable. The significant total effect of the quality of effort in science courses variable is the result of direct influence only. Discussion The findings of the present study contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the assertion that informal student-faculty interaction has a significant influence on the attitudes, interests, and values of college students (Chickering, 1969; Feldman & Newcomb, 1969; Newman & Newman, 1978; Pascarella, 1980; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1978, 1991; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1980; Wallace, 1966). The positive effects observed provide evidence of the importance of these variables for community college students in the beginning of their educational endeavors in science and mathematics. The direct negative influence of "gender" for students' perceived quality of effort in science and educational gains in science and mathematics also supports the evidence that men and women differ in the acquisition of science and mathematics knowledge (see, for example Barber, 1995; Ethington, 1988; Hilton & Lee, 1988; Maple & Stage, 1991; Nauta, Epperson, & Kahn, 1998; Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997). Thus, the present study supports Pace's (1979) assertion that students' differential patterns of growth and development can be assessed through student efforts in using resources provided by their institutions. In the present study, this would be referring to students' informal interaction with faculty. Based on Pace's assertion and the results of the present study, it is possible that as students increase the amount of informal interaction they have with faculty, they begin to place more value on their courses. As a consequence, they display positive attitudes towards science learning and development. Another finding in the present study revealed that the amount of time students spend at work is inversely in·verse adj. 1. Reversed in order, nature, or effect. 2. Mathematics Of or relating to an inverse or an inverse function. 3. Archaic Turned upside down; inverted. n. 1. related to their reported levels of informal student-faculty interaction and their effort exerted in science courses. However, the effect of students having a job has a positive association with their quality of effort in science courses. This evidence indicates that it is not necessarily detrimental det·ri·men·tal adj. Causing damage or harm; injurious. det  ri·men for students
to work while pursuing a science- and mathematics-based education or
courses therein. The actual amount of time spent at the job negatively
affects the available amount of time students may interact with faculty
outside the classroom. This negatively affects the quality of effort
they exert while in class. Although rather small in effect, the
influence of family on the informal interaction variable is positive.
This indicates that any family responsibilities of the students are not
inversely related to their interactions with faculty.The total effects on the science and mathematics educational gains variable indicate that informal student-faculty interaction has the greatest overall effect in the hypothesized causal model. Again, this concurs with the above reviewed evidence of the importance and magnitude student-faculty interaction has on the differential patterns of student learning, specifically in science- and mathematics-based academic achievement and retention. Much of the reviewed evidence pertains to the disparity between men and women in science- and mathematics-based courses and majors. The present study reveals that the women in this sample have lower levels of effort in science courses, as well as lower perceived educational gains in science and mathematics. One explanatory ex·plan·a·to·ry adj. Serving or intended to explain: an explanatory paragraph. ex·plan reason may be that the educational norms and attitudes of science- and mathematics-based courses and majors are foreign to most female students and do not relate to the ways in which females learn. For example, the rigor rigor /rig·or/ (rig´er) [L.] chill; rigidity. rigor mor´tis the stiffening of a dead body accompanying depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle fibers. and aggressive nature of science and mathematics in teaching, curriculum, and assessment does not parallel with a social and interpersonal learning environment--an environment documented as enhancing the growth and development of female students (Beer & Darkenwald, 1989; Belenky, Clincher, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan, 1982; Kuh, Pace, & Vesper, 1997; Nora, Cabrera, Hagedorn, & Pascarella, 1996; Seymour, 1995). As noted by Seymour (1995), "... in treating male and female students alike (e.g., impersonal classes, competing for grades, intimidating teaching style), faculty are, in effect, treating women in ways that are understood by the men, but not by the women," and in doing so, "faculty are unwittingly discouraging dis·cour·age tr.v. dis·cour·aged, dis·cour·ag·ing, dis·cour·ag·es 1. To deprive of confidence, hope, or spirit. 2. To hamper by discouraging; deter. 3. women more than men by the same behavior because women do not know why they are being treated in this way and do not know how to respond to it" (p. 461). As stated previously, students who develop interpersonal relationships with faculty members have higher levels of academic skills development, and higher rates of persistency in science- and mathematics-based courses and majors (Astin, 1977; Davis & Young, 1982; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1976). This assertion was confirmed in part for the men sampled for this study. However, no significant difference is noted between men and women on the informal student-faculty interaction variable. Despite similar patterns of informal interaction with faculty outside the classroom for both men and women, the disparity between the two remained. This disparity may be a reflection of the quality and not the amount of interaction between women and faculty members. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , male and female students may be interacting with faculty outside the classroom at equivalent amounts of time, but the interpersonal relationship between the students and faculty may continue to be of a rigid nature. Some students may feel intimidated in·tim·i·date tr.v. in·tim·i·dat·ed, in·tim·i·dat·ing, in·tim·i·dates 1. To make timid; fill with fear. 2. To coerce or inhibit by or as if by threats. and, thus, the potential benefit and opportunity to ask questions and seek personal assistance is minimized. Furthermore, if the science or mathematics course is characteristically impersonal, competitive, or lacking in any encouragement and feedback, it may not matter how much interaction female students have with faculty. It is a cohesion cohesion: see adhesion and cohesion. Cohesion (physics) The tendency of atoms or molecules to coalesce into extended condensed states. This tendency is practically universal. of the teaching style, learning environment, and the amount and quality of interaction with faculty outside of the classroom that enhances the academic growth and development of female students. If faculty members continue to persist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move" continue an aggressive teaching style or in a manner not conducive con·du·cive adj. Tending to cause or bring about; contributive: working conditions not conducive to productivity. See Synonyms at favorable. to the learning style preferred by women (i.e., social and interpersonal), the disparity will continue and perhaps increase. Implications The central purpose of this study was to examine the connection between informal student-faculty interaction, the perceived quality of effort asserted in science courses, and perceived educational gains in science-and mathematics-based courses for community college students. The overall findings of the current study did find statistically significant effects between the variables in the causal model. This has broad implications for college teaching and student learning in two-year institutions. Community colleges are important to higher education in developing men and women for careers or transfer to four-year institutions or both. The manner and techniques by which community college faculty teach and develop their students must meet the educational and intellectual wants and needs of the student body, specifically females in science and mathematics. Community colleges have the opportunity to start or stop the career and educational aspirations of its students, so it is vital that administrators of higher education recognize and be sensitive to the influence, amount, and quality of informal interaction that takes place between their students and faculty. Community colleges are well-known for their "student-friendly" environments and can build upon that reputation if they choose to explore more ways to have faculty more responsive to their diverse student body. As suggested from the evidence of the present study, students would benefit from higher qualities of informal interaction, as well as modern approaches to teaching that encompass different learning styles and preferences. If two-year institutions are to have any effect on improving the disparity between men and women in science- and mathematics-based courses and majors, it is essential that faculty within these disciplines be more available outside the classroom. Furthermore, faculty members should be encouraged to share with their students more of their attitudes, interests, and values related to the discipline and disclose their educational and occupational history. In other words, faculty members should be attempting to develop better relationships with students, especially when this reaction results in a better learning environment. For example, the negative effect of time spent at work in relation to various student academic outcomes is not an unfamiliar problem for community colleges. Considering the increasing number of nontraditional students who enroll in community colleges, this problem is not likely to diminish in the near future. Students who have to weigh their educational endeavors against family and workplace responsibilities may always find it difficult to develop and maintain informal relationships with faculty members. The inability to approach faculty members within their given available time (e.g., office hours office hours, n.pl See business hours. ) makes it difficult for students who need limited personal instruction in understanding and solving problems. Thus, faculty members, specifically in science and mathematics, would be wise to facilitate an open and friendly learning environment where students are at ease with the instructor, as well as with course materials. This may include open and direct communication of expectations, students' active participation, adjusting the presentation pace of subject-matter SUBJECT-MATTER. The cause, the object, the thing in dispute. 2. It is a fatal objection to the jurisdiction of the court when it has not cognizance of the subject-matter of the action; as, if a cause exclusively of admiralty jurisdiction were brought in a court , and incorporating various materials to aid in instruction and learning. If time constraints In law, time constraints are placed on certain actions and filings in the interest of speedy justice, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is moot. are detrimental to opportunities and resources for students to assist and better themselves, then the opportunities and resources, to an extent, must be available within the formal classroom. Faculty members would also be wise to encourage their students to engage in active learning strategies that could include small work groups and applying class-obtained knowledge to their own lives, which has been documented as being highly conducive to the academic self-confidence and self-efficacy self-efficacy (selfˈ-eˑ·fi·k of both men and women in higher education. This in turn leads to higher levels of academic growth and achievement. Administrators of higher education must help two-year institutions to develop ways to meet the expectations of both male and female college students, regardless of the academic discipline. More in-depth knowledge is needed of how the faculty differ in their teaching methods and how they interact with students both inside and outside their classrooms. This would provide valuable information for both administrators and faculty to promote the students' intellectual wants and needs. Perhaps this would help close the gap between men and women in science and mathematics. Limitations This study is limited in at least two ways. First, the CCSEQ was designed to yield information regarding the experiences of students in two-year colleges. Hence, the study omits student experiences prior to entering higher education institutions. Second, the institutions who participated in this data set are of different contexts. Each two-year institution has its own specific academic environment which may or may not emphasize or be conducive to student-faculty interaction in settings outside the classroom. Thus, student and faculty behavior probably differed according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the attitudes, interests, and values of the institution; the extent of difference and other influences is not known. "I would like to express appreciation to Patricia H. 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M. & Ethington, C. A. (1985). GEMINI: Program for analysis of structural equations with standard errors of indirect effects. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 17, 581-584. APPENDIX A: CONTENT OF THE FOUR CCSEQ DIMENSIONS Job Students indicated the extent to which a job interfered with their school work using a four-point scale (1 = "no job" to 4 = "takes a lot of time"). Family Students indicated the extent to which their family interfered with their school work using a four-point scale (1 = "no family responsibilities" to 4 = "takes a lot of time"). Timework Students indicated the number of hours they work at a job using a six-point scale (1 = none, no job" to 6 ="more than 40 hours"). Informal Student-Faculty Interaction Students indicated the extent to which they had contact with faculty using a four-point scale (1 = "never" to 4 = "very often"). (alpha = .87). 1. Asked an instructor for information about grades, make-up Make-up The amount of deficiency when a cash flow or capital item is deficient. For example, an interest make-up relates to the interest amount above a ceiling percentage. work, assignments, etc. 2. Talked briefly with an instructor after class about course content. 3. Made an appointment to meet with instructors in their offices. 4. Discussed ideas for a term paper or other class project with an instructor. 5. Discussed career plans and/or educational plans, interests, and ambitions with an instructor. 6. Discussed comments an instructor made on a test or paper you wrote. 7. Talked informally with an instructor about current events, campus activities, or other common interests. 8. Discussed school performance, difficulties, or personal problems with an instructor. Quality of Effort in Science Students indicated their amount of effort exerted in science using a four-point scale (1 = "never" to 4 "very often"). (alpha = .93). 1. Memorized formulas, definitions, technical terms. 2. Practiced to improve skills in using laboratory equipment. 3. Showed a classmate how to use a piece of scientific equipment. 4. Attempted to explain an experimental procedure to a classmate. 5. Tested understanding of some scientific principle by seeing if it could be explained to another student. 6. Completed an experiment or project using scientific methods. 7. Talked about social and ethical issues related to science and technology such as energy, pollution, chemicals, genetics genetics, scientific study of the mechanism of heredity. While Gregor Mendel first presented his findings on the statistical laws governing the transmission of certain traits from generation to generation in 1856, it was not until the discovery and detailed study of , etc. 8. Used information learned in a science class to understand some aspect of the world around you. 9. Tried to explain to someone the scientific basis for environmental concerns about pollution, recycling recycling, the process of recovering and reusing waste products—from household use, manufacturing, agriculture, and business—and thereby reducing their burden on the environment. , alternative forms of energy, etc. Perceived Science and Mathematics Gains Students indicated their perceived gains in science and mathematics using a four-point scale (1 "very little" to 4 "very much"). (alpha = .74) 1. Acquiring the ability to use computers. 2. Understanding mathematical concepts such as probabilities, proportions, etc. 3. Understanding the role of science and technology in society. 4. Putting ideas together to see relationships, similarities, and differences between ideas. 5. Interpreting information in graphs and charts I see in newspapers, text books, and on TV. Michael D. Thompson Thompson, city, Canada Thompson, city (1991 pop. 14,977), central Man., Canada, on the Burntwood River. A mining town, it developed after large nickel deposits were discovered in the area in 1956. is the assistant director of the Office of Institutional Research at Dartmouth College Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N.H.; coeducational; chartered 1769, opened 1770, the ninth colonial college (see Wheelock, Eleazar). Originally a men's college, Dartmouth began admitting women in 1972. . michael.thompson@dartmouth.edu |
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