Increasing and Generalizing Self-Efficacy Through Strength Training.

In the spring of 1998, a group of people with and without disabilities traveled from the United States to Kathmandu, Nepal. After arriving in Kathmandu, the group trekked 46 miles over narrow mountain trails to the base camp of Mount Everest. The group arrived in base camp at the same time an expedition, led by Tom Whittaker, a mountaineer with only one foot, was poised to reach the summit (Whittaker, 1998). On May 27, Whittaker became the first person with a disability to reach the summit of Mt. Everest. The feats of trekking to base camp and scaling the tallest mountain in the world were accomplished in part because these people possessed a strong sense of self-efficacy.

Self-Efficacy

While organizing a trek to the base camp of Mt. Everest may not be a realistic goal for recreation professionals who work with people with disabilities, increasing self-efficacy and generalizing efficacy from recreation activities to other activities should be considered important and realistic goals. Self-efficacy is the belief in one's capabilities to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997). One's belief can range from certain one cannot perform an activity to certain one can perform an activity.

Self-efficacy is a predictor of behavior. Compared to people with a weak sense of efficacy, people who perceive themselves as highly efficacious are more likely to attempt new activities, expend greater effort on those activities, and persevere even when faced with difficulties (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Conversely, a weak sense of self-efficacy can prevent people from trying to perform an activity they are physically capable of performing, because they do not have confidence in their abilities. For example, people who use wheelchairs may be physically capable of transferring to and from a toilet, but if they do not believe they can transfer, they are unlikely to attempt to transfer. People who do not believe in their abilities to perform essential activities of daily living (ADL) are less likely to live independently than those who believe in their abilities.

Self-efficacy is situation-specific because people's sense of confidence is influenced by demands of the situation. People can be very sure of their ability to perform at one level of attainment but unsure of their ability to perform at a more stringent level. For example, people may be sure they can lift a 50-pound weight, but they may be unsure they can lift a 75-pound weight.

Self-efficacy is influenced by four sources of information--mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Mastery experiences are the most influential source of information and occur when people successfully perform an activity. Successful completion of an activity provides people with direct evidence of their capability to perform the activity and strengthens their belief that they can perform the activity the next time they encounter it.

Vicarious experiences involve watching someone else successfully perform an activity. The observer thinks, "If that model, who is very similar to me (e.g., same disability, sex, age), can perform the activity, then so can I." Vicarious experiences allow people who have never attempted an activity to formulate a degree of certainty about their ability to perform the activity.

Verbal statements that attribute successful performance of an activity to an internal feature of a performer (e.g., ability) are a form of verbal persuasion. These statements are more influential when they are made by an instructor, expert, or valued other who is considered by the performer to be knowledgeable about the activity. An example of a verbal persuasion statement is, "Jim, you lifted that 50-pound weight because you have learned how to lift correctly."

Verbal statements made prior to performing an activity can raise efficacy because they reflect the speaker's belief in the performer's ability. "Jim, I know you are strong enough to lift the 75-pound weight" would be an example of such a statement.

Finally, physiological arousal involves interpretation of bodily states before, during, and after performance of an activity. For example, prior to the performance of an activity, increased heart and respiratory rates can be viewed as signs of nervousness that indicate impending failure, or the same signals can be viewed as positive indications that the body is preparing to perform the activity. In both situations, the physiological signs are the same, but the interpretation of those signs is different. Interpreting signs as indication of impending failure will lower efficacy; interpreting the signs as indication of readiness will raise efficacy.

Generalization of Efficacy

While considered situation-specific, self-efficacy can generalize from one activity to another (Bandura, Jeffery, & Gajdos, 1975; Brody, Hatfield, & Spalding, 1988; Holloway, Beuter, & Duda, 1988). Bandura (1997) described five situations that can lead to the generalization of efficacy. Generalization is likely to occur when activities share similar subskills; two activities are learned at the same time; generalized coping skills are learned; similarities between activities are cognitively recognized; or when an experience is so powerful that it leads to a transformational restructuring of efficacy beliefs across many activities.

Similar Subskills

Generalization of efficacy is likely to occur when two activities have., similar subskills. For example, people who feel efficacious toward the bench press exercise will probably feel confident toward the incline bench press exercise because the two exercises are very similar. Both exercises involve pushing a weight upward from one's chest using chest, shoulder, and triceps muscles while lying supine on a bench.

Co-Development

When two activities are learned concurrently, efficacy can generalize from one activity to the other activity if the environment is structured to foster the acquisition of a strong sense of efficacy. For example, an instructor may be very adept at teaching the deadlift exercise. The instructor structures the environment so participants successfully learn how to deadlift and gain a strong sense of efficacy. This sense of efficacy carries over to a very different exercise, the bench press, because the bench press is learned in the same environment with the same instructor.

Generalized Coping Skills

Efficacy can generalize when people learn or improve coping skills applicable to a variety of situations. After completing a strength training program, young women became more confident in social situations where physical strength was an asset (Holloway et al., 1988). For example, the young women reported they felt more confident telling someone who was trying to cut in front of them in a line not to do so. An increase in physical strength made the young women feel more in control, in this social situation.

Cognitive Recognition

Generalization of efficacy can occur when people cognitively recognize commonalities between different activities. Efficacy may generalize from the weight room to ADL when people who use wheelchairs recognize that the muscles they use to perform dips are the same muscles they use to perform transfers.

Transformational Restructure

An experience can be so powerful that it changes efficacy beliefs toward many activities. In one of Bandura's early studies, he had people with severe snake phobia physically handle snakes (Bandura et al., 1975). After successfully handling a snake, people reported feeling significantly more efficacious toward a variety of dissimilar activities (e.g., public speaking).

Practical Application

Recreation professionals can use recreation activities to increase participants' confidence in other important areas of life such as ADL. Participation in recreation activities conducted in a specifically structured environment could lead to increased efficacy toward the recreation activity and a generalization of confidence to ADL. An increase in self-efficacy toward ADL can improve participants' lives by enabling them to become more independent.

The remaining portion of this article describes techniques a strength training instructor can use to increase strength training efficacy and generalize efficacy from the weight room to ADL in people with spinal cord injuries who use manual wheelchairs. Readers are encouraged to apply the following techniques with other groups of people with disabilities and recreation activities.

Techniques to Increase Strength Training Efficacy

To begin, the instructor develops lessons that incorporate techniques for increasing strength training efficacy through the four sources of efficacy information --mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal. A general description of how the bench press exercise can be taught in an initial lesson is provided as an illustration.

Participant modeling is one technique frequently used to increase efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Participant modeling, consisting of three steps, incorporates mastery and vicarious experiences. First, the instructor has a model correctly perform a bench press while the participants observe. Then the instructor physically assists each participant through the bench press exercise. Finally, each participant performs a bench press without assistance. Performing the bench press exercise without assistance provides participants with direct evidence of their ability.

Prior to participants attempting the bench press, the instructor tells them the increased heart rate they may experience is the body's way of preparing to perform the exercise. This interpretation of the physiological signal can prevent participants from believing that the signal indicates their inability to perform the exercise.

After participants complete the bench press exercise, the instructor makes personal verbal persuasion statements. One example of a statement is, "Jim, you use excellent technique when you bench press." Because the verbal statements attribute participants' success to their ability, participants strengthen their beliefs in their abilities to perform the exercise.

Techniques to Generalize Efficacy

To increase the likelihood that generalization of efficacy will occur, the instructor identifies strength training exercises similar to ADL and that work the major muscles of the upper body. Vertical bench press (pushing open a heavy door), overhead dumbbell press (placing a heavy object on a high shelf), row (opening a heavy door, rearranging furniture), dip (transferring), and biceps curl (holding a heavy item above the lap) exercises share many similarities with ADL. One similarity is that the exercise movements mimic movements of the specific activities noted above. A second similarity is that many ADL involve more than one joint (e.g., shoulder, elbow). Each exercise, with the exception of biceps curls, involves more than one joint. A third similarity is that ADL often require people to maintain correct posture in space. For example, when people with high-level injuries use wheelchairs and reach for a gallon of milk from a high shelf in a refrigerator, they must maintain correct posture so as not to fall forward or over to one side. Selected exercises can be performed with free weights (i.e., dumbbells, barbells). Using free weights forces the body to maintain correct posture. While performing overhead dumbbell presses, a strength trainer must stabilize the wheelchair user so s/he does not fall forward or over to one side.

Assigning homework is another technique that can be employed to generalize efficacy. In homework assignments, participants are asked to perform ADL outside of the weight room and record their perceptions of how strength training has affected their ADL performance.

A brief, 15-minute formal processing session can be held periodically at the conclusion of strength training lessons to increase the likelihood that efficacy will generalize (Ewart, Taylor, Reese, & DeBusk, 1983; Taylor, Bandura, Ewart, Miller, & DeBusk, 1985). During each formal processing session, the instructor and participants discuss participants' perceptions of whether efficacy gained in the weight room has generalized to ADL. The instructor assists participants to discover the positive effect strength training has on ADL.

During formal processing sessions, participants are encouraged to share results of homework assignments. For example, one participant may note how strength training has made it easier to make it up the ramps in his or her house. Sharing this experience may cause other participants to become more aware of how lifting weights has impacted their daily lives.

The following example outlines how an instructor can promote generalization of efficacy from dips to wheelchair transfers. First, the instructor has a model perform dips. Then, participants and instructor discuss similarities between the strength training exercise of dips and the activity of transferring from a wheelchair. One similarity is that both movements involve pushing one's body upward using muscles in the arms, chest, and shoulders. Also, in both situations, participants are required to lift their body weight. The instructor then asks participants to perform 10 dips. After participants perform the dips, the instructor says, "You should be able to transfer out of your wheelchair because you just performed 10 dips." However, some participants may be unable to complete 10 dips and interpret this as an inability to transfer out of their wheelchairs. The instructor helps participants reinterpret the situation by pointing out that participants had just lifted 1,000 pounds (e.g., eight repetitions multiplied by 125 pounds of body weight). Participants are shown how their failure to complete 10 repetitions was due to fatigue and does not indicate an inability to transfer from their wheelchairs.

After learning how to perform dips, participants are asked to transfer at home and record their perceptions of how strength training has affected their ability to transfer. These perceptions are shared with other participants during a processing session. Also, during the processing session, the instructor facilitates a discussion that covers similarities between dips and transfers and importance of muscular strength in performing transfers.

Conclusion

Recreation professionals have the power to impact lives of people with disabilities in a positive manner. Professionals can help people become efficacious by incorporating techniques designed to maximize and generalize efficacy into existing learning environments.

Self-efficacy is not the sole agent of behavior, but it does play a vital role in determining what activities people attempt, how much effort they will expend, and how long they will persevere when faced with difficulties. With respect to the practical application described in this article, a strong sense of strength training efficacy should result in people continuing to lift weights after the formal instruction period is completed. Continuing participation is important because the benefits of strength training are achieved when people participate on a regular basis for a long period of time. Generalization of efficacy to ADL should result in people becoming more confident in their abilities to perform ADL and a concomitant improvement in the performance of ADL. These actions can lead to greater independence. For some people with disabilities, becoming more independent may be their trek to the Everest base camp.

Selected References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Self-efficacy. In social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory (pp. 390-453). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Bandura, A., Jeffery, R. W., & Gajdos, E. (1975). Generalizing change through participant modeling with self-directed mastery. Behavior Research and Therapy, 13, 1411-152.

Brody, E. B., Hatfield, B. D., & Spalding, T. W. (1988). Generalization of self-efficacy to a continuum of stressors upon mastery of a high-risk sport skill. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 32-44.

Ewart, C. K., Taylor, B., Reese, L. B., & DeBusk, R. F. (1983). Effects of early postmyocardial infarction exercise testing on self-perception and subsequent physical activity. The American Journal of Cardiology, 51, 1076-1080.

Holloway, J. B., Beuter, A., & Duda, J. L. (1988). Self-efficacy and training for strength in adolescent girls. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 699-719.

Taylor, C. B., Bandura, A., Ewart, C. K., Miller,. N. H., & DeBusk, R. F. (1985). Exercise testing to enhance wives' confidence in their husbands' cardiac capability soon after clinically uncomplicated acute myocardial infarction. The American Journal of Cardiology, 55, 635-638.

Whittaker, T. (1998). Mission and timeline. Everest Challenge '98 Home Page. Available World Wide Web: http:// www.mtnvisions.com/Everest/ everest2.html/.

RELATED ARTICLE: PALAESTRA: Forum of Sport, Physical Education, & Recreation for Those With Disabilities

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James Wise is currently completing requirements for a PhD in Parks, Recreation, and Tourism from the University of Utah. For his dissertation, he examined the effectiveness of a curriculum to generalize self-efficacy with adults with spinal cord injuries or spina bifida. In addition to completing his dissertation, he is teaching classes and supervising the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism internship program.