Improving the breed: any survey of the current armoured fighting vehicle scene will reveal there are many new light armoured vehicles, such as IFVs and APCs, either in production or about to be.

Improving the breed: any survey of the current armoured fighting vehicle scene will reveal there are many new light armoured vehicles, such as IFVs and APCs, either in production or about to be. For their manufacturers the future looks bright. At the top of the market, the tanks, matters are not so chipper. Wherever one looks, tank manufacturers are either contemplating empty pages in their order books or have already ceased to build from new (although a few exceptions can be made). (Complete Guide)

Because of the downshift in orders, tank manufacturers are displaying a growing trend toward applying themselves to improving the breed by a process of rebuilds, upgrading and general all-round improvement to their existing products.

This situation applies wherever one looks, although there are notable exceptions. For instance, production lines in Spain (currently preparing to licence-produce the Leopard 2A6E) and Egypt (still continuing to churn out licence-produced M1 Abrams) are still very active, but both limited to local markets. The French Leclerc lines are expected to be kept until at least 2006, but after then it seems that customers could be rare. Several nations have expressed a need to modernise their heavily armoured vehicle fleets, but in almost every instance when the time comes to signing contracts the local economic situation starts to look difficult, or natural disasters intercede, and the dotted lines remain blank. The main manufacturing programmes for both have ceased but production lines are far from silent.

The KMW (Krauss-Maffei Wegmann) Leopard 2 line is now busy upgrading earlier models up to L2A6 standard. As it is anticipated that the Leopard 2 will be around for well over two decades to come (at least), future standards up to L2A8 (again, at least) are already being mentioned. There will no doubt be more.

In the USA, the General Dynamics Land Systems' Mi Abrams series lines are currently virtually rebuilding most of the M1A1 tanks they had previously produced.

Leopard 2

European deployment of the Leopard 2 is so widespread that it is often referred to as the Euro Leopard 2.

The main Leopard 2 model was the Leopard 2A4, in production for some fifteen years virtually unaltered, apart from details. That changed on the Leopard 2A5, with numerous modifications including better frontal protection, a thermal imager for the commander, all-electric gun drives for the gun mounting and turret, a new land navigation system and many other enhancements. Perhaps the most noticeable of the protection improvements is the wedge-shaped armour extension on the turret front. On the Leopard 2A6 the longer Rheinmetall 120 mm L55 gun is installed. This gun, combined with the latest family of ammunition, provides the Leopard 2A6 with even more striking power than before.

Not all Leopard 2 production has been by KMW. Switzerland's Leopard 2s (Pz 87 Leo) were licence-manufactured in-country under the prime contractorship of Oerlikon Contraves. Bofors Defense and Hagglunds of Sweden are heavily involved with the local production of the Swedish Army's Strv 122 variant (which has even more enhancements than the Leopard 2A5 and so is slightly heavier, 62 tonnes as opposed to 59.7 tonnes). Santa Barbara of Spain (now part of General Dynamics of the USA) is about to commence licence production of the Leopard 2A6E, complete with the longer L55 gun from the outset. The Netherlands was involved with production of their Leopard 2A4s, some of which were gradually disposed of as the Netherlands armed forces contracted. Most of those remaining are now in the process of being up-gunned to Leopard 2A6 standard.

The largest Leopard 2A4 fleet has always been that of Germany, overall totals reaching 2125. Of these, 225 have been upgraded to L2A5, while current plans for 225 to be further upgraded to 2A6 will enable Germany's rapid response battalions to be equipped with the most potent Leopard 2 variant to date. The term `to date' is apposite for further improvements to the Leopard 2 are in prospect. These include an even more powerful compact power pack with an output of 1200 kW, as opposed to the present 1100 kW. Other prospects are yet more protection, both passive and active, and expanded capability electronics, the latter including an identification-friend-or-foe (IFF) system.

M1 Abrams

Large though Leopard 2 production totals might appear by recent standards, they pale somewhat when compared to those of the US General Dynamics Land Systems M1 Abrams. When the last US production example was delivered, M1 Abrams totals stood at 7467, while licence production in Egypt, with a high locally manufactured content, is still in progress and planned to reach at least 655. The main US production model was the M1A1, 4796 being built for the US armed forces alone.

Most of the US total was for the Army and Marine Corps, with more sold to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. To date the latter has taken 315. That total was expected to be increased still further, that is until Saudi sentiments became politically coloured by events in Afghanistan.

The original M1 Abrams carried a 105 mm M68 main gun although this was soon increased to 120 mm by installing the licence-produced Rheinmetall L44 gun that became the M256. The M1A1 had improved armoured protection while the M1A2 featured a completely revised electronics suite that reduced the overall volume of the units concerned and enabled them to be fully `digitised' to match the US Army's latest command, control and communication operating standards.

Then comes the M1A2 Sep (System Enhancement Package). This programme entails all manner of further electronic enhancements, from fire control and computerised data packages to improved night vision devices. Perhaps the most significant addition is an under-armour auxiliary power unit to take the load off the main power pack during prolonged halts when electrical services are still needed to power the electronics. Scheduled M1A2 Sep upgrades are for a total of 1150 units, although the first 25 will not appear until late 2002.

Mention of the power pack prompts inviting attention to the Textron Lycoming AGT 1500 gas turbine, the feature that marked the original M1 Abrams as something revolutionary. The AGT1500, the 1500 of which refers to the power output in horsepower, and its Allison transmission have achieved high levels of reliability in service, although fuel consumption levels have been rather higher than originally anticipated. The gas turbine is no longer in production so consideration has been given to future Abrams models having the option of a MTU EuroPowerPack V-12 diesel coupled to a Renk transmission. This version is being developed for potential export sales, one prospect already approached being Turkey.

The M1 Abrams also features in a recent proposal to upgrade the numerous M60 series tanks still in service with over 25 countries. The upgrade is centred around replacing the existing M60 turret with that of the M1A1 Abrams while, at the same time, installing a more powerful diesel power pack and including the same transmission as that already installed in the Abrams. Many well-tried M1A1 systems are incorporated into the turret. This General Dynamics project, known as the M60-2000, is intended for export sales only.

Many other comparable M60 upgrade proposals are centred around simply replacing the existing gun with a 120 mm model. Typical of these is the Jordanian proposal to install a Swiss Ruag 120 mm Compact Tank Gun in an existing M60 turret. Another is a Ukrainian proposal to install a smoothbore 120 mm gun and autoloader, again in a new turret. A new, more powerful compact power pack is part of this package being directed towards Turkey, although they will have to compete against the M60-2000 and a local M60 upgrade development about which little is yet known.

Leclerc

The debut of the French Giat Leclerc tank prototype in 1989 came at a very favourable moment. It appeared during the time period when military standard digital electronic technology came of age. The Leclerc was therefore developed from the outset to accommodate all the many digital electronic novelties then becoming available. Most of the Leclerc's initial electronic suite capabilities later had to be retrofitted (at some cost) to many of its contemporaries, the original `fits' for most of which dated from an important few years earlier.

The Leclerc was thus one of the first armoured fighting vehicles to have the option of being provided with a battlefield management system, named Finders (Fast Information, Navigation, Decision and Reporting System), that can display all manner of battlefield data to a tank crew via rugged flat screen graphic displays (see the "Keeping Harm at Bay" section of this survey). Tank crews can thus keep in touch with the outside tactical situation, such as own and enemy locations, at a glance, while the system can also provide data for navigation and carry out message handling. Routine factors such as ammunition remaining, fuel states, component status and other `domestic' topics are handled by an integrated system of microprocessors that processes and provides data on command to any crewmember. Should either particular microprocessor malfunction for any reason, its tasks are automatically transferred to another in the system.

These innovations are not the only Leclerc novelties. In order to keep the crew strength down to three and therefore reduce vehicle size, an automatic ammunition handling and loading system is provided. Ammunition type and other information is imparted to the handling and loading system by bar codes similar to those used in supermarkets. As a result of the ammunition handling system, crew workloads are not only reduced but a high rate of aimed fire is possible (up to six rounds in under one minute), even when on the move over rough country. Other innovations include modular armour designed to be easily removed and replaced when technology introduces better protection capabilities.

The French Army ordered 310 Leclercs, production of which will continue until 2006. The order book was later boosted by a further 390 `tropicalised' Leclercs for the United Arab Emirates (UAE), together with 46 examples of a Leclerc armoured recovery vehicle variant. The UAE order called for the installation of an MTU EuroPowerPack 1500 hp V-12 diesel in place of the Sacm diesel installed in Leclercs for the French Army. The transmissions also differ. The Finders is installed as standard for all UAE examples, while the UAE Leclerc also has an auxiliary power unit.

Production of the French Army version was set-aside at one period to allow the UAE order to be delivered as quickly as possible. Unfortunately, it became apparent that the UAE was not altogether happy with their Leclercs, leading to exchanges between the UAE and Giat. At one stage it was reported that production for the UAE had been suspended for some months. All this was in direct contrast with French Army experience as they reported a high level of reliability, even with Leclercs deployed to places far removed from support facilities, such as Kosovo (UAE Leclercs have also served there). It is understood that a prime cause of the UAE difficulties turned out to be misunderstandings relating to maintenance procedures, so deliveries recommenced.

French Army Leclercs are already under consideration for future enhancements. For instance, the 96 remaining tanks - Bloc 3 - to be delivered to the Armee de Terre at time of writing are to be equipped with the French version of the Finders, known as Sit, or Icone. In time, the Icone will be installed on all French Army Leclercs. Other forecast enhancements include a fire detection and suppression system and even better data transmission and control systems. However, the Bloc 3 turrets are also being fitted with new armour protection. According to Marc Chassillan from Giat, this new armour was developed through a new configuration of the materials used and will not significantly increase the overall weight of the tank. The degree of improvement is classified, but is aimed at matching the performance of both hollow charge warheads and APFSDS rounds. Since the armour of the Leclerc is modular, upgrading the older vehicles is apparently a pure nut-and-bolt job. Yet another Bloc 3 improvement is the replacement of the commander's Athos thermal camera and the gunner's Gen 3 image intensifier by a pair of second-generation Iris thermal imagers from Sagem.

One further aspect of the Leclerc is that it was designed in a modular fashion so that variants could evolve with a minimum of development effort. Forecast variants included a combat engineer vehicle, a bridgelayer and an armoured recovery vehicle (the DNG). To date, the only one of these variants actually produced has been the DNG, and that for the UAE only, although the French Army is expected to order a batch of about fifteen.

Merkava

When considering the Israeli Merkava (Chariot) it has to be bore in mind that the Israel Defence Force (IDF) regards its geographic and demographic position in the Middle East as a life or death scenario. Several times in the past it has had to defend its borders to the extreme, knowing all the time that defeat would mean the end of Israel's national identity. All defence equipment developed locally therefore has to be designed with `no compromise' priorities in mind, including as many locally produced systems and components as possible to remove dependence upon unreliable outside supply sources. Therefore, the Merkava is very much a `unique to locality' development, even if its many combat attributes would be greatly appreciated elsewhere.

Combat experiences from several local conflicts convinced Israeli military planners that maximum priority had to be given to combat vehicle protection, even if it was provided at the expense of firepower and mobility. The Merkava Mks 1 and 2 built by the Israeli Ordnance Corps were therefore armed with a 105 mm gun at a time (the late 1970s) when 120 mm guns were under active consideration elsewhere. However, the Merkava turret and hull are provided with excellent all-round modular protection, including for the usually neglected roof area, although actual figures understandably remain classified.

Modular means that some armour panels can be removed and replaced when improved materials or techniques become available. Reactive explosive armour is already in use. The relocation of the engine to the front of the hull further enhances protection for the crew of four, while leaving a small area at the rear for an infantry squad.

While the Merkava Mk 2 was basically an improved Mk 1, the Merkava Mk 3 Baz (Hawk) emerged as almost a new design weighing a hefty 65 tonnes, so suspension enhancements were introduced. While many features of the earlier marks remained, the main gun was uprated to 120 mm calibre. This gun, the IMI MG 251, is ballistically matched to the Rheinmetall L44 and fires Nato standard ammunition but is very much a local product, as is the IMI ammunition involved. The larger gun entailed a revised turret with all-electric controls, plus an advanced gunner's sight and fire control system, complete with long-range target tracking. Protection is enhanced not only by improved levels of a `special' but unspecified type of layered bolt-on armour all round, but by the provision of fire suppression systems and an advanced smoke screen production system for rapid concealment. Further crew protection is made by the provision of an over-pressure NBC system that allows the crew to operate under closed-down NBC conditions in a `shirtsleeve' environment.

The Merkava Mk 3 was one of the first AFVs to carry a threat warning system presenting the commander with threat data. Such systems provide warnings against laser, radar and optronic surveillance as well as warnings of the approach of missiles or artillery-delivered top attack submunitions. They can also take any necessary action, such as automatically initiating an anti-missile system or producing a smoke screen.

Good as the Merkava Mark 3 might be, and it is stated by the IDF Tank Corps to be very good indeed, a Mk 4 is understood to be under development. The next Merkava has been the subject of much speculation as, among other innovations, it has been reported to have a 140 mm smoothbore main gun, which is understood to have design affinities with a Swiss 140 mm project of some years ago. If this gun is involved then no doubt the former passenger area will be devoted to ammunition stowage, thus increasing the vehicle's combat potential by carrying more of the oversize rounds.

It has been forecast that all components and systems used on the Merkava Mk 4 will be completely homegrown, and very much state-of-the-art, the E1-Op/Elbit Knight fire control system (already fitted to late production Merkava Mk 3s) in particular being of an extremely advanced type. It is understood to be capable of dealing with fleeting targets such as helicopters. However, it still remains to be seen if a full 100 per cent local content Merkava Mk 4 is possible.

Merkavas carry a small 60 mm mortar to fire HE or smoke bombs from the roof and against targets that could not be realistically regarded as worthy of the main gun. While most Merkavas have provision to carry a 7.62 mm machine gun on the roof, one recent innovation has been a 12.7 mm/0.50 M2 Browning on a bracket over the main barrel. This extends the ability of the host vehicle to produce fire against close-range targets, or those undemanding of the main gun's power.

T-72 et al

Although the T-72 tank series has been out of production in its native Russia for some years, it continues in production in India and remains available from several other sources. Production totals to date are unknown but must be well over 12,000, 7000 going to the Russian armed forces alone, resulting in a bewildering number of models and sub-models. For many years the latest T-72 to appear was the tank against which Western equivalents were measured.

It is for the numerical reason alone that the T-72 series has to be included in any survey of current tanks. T-72s remain valued combat assets for myriad nations, many of whom cannot even contemplate their replacement, so the T-72, and its main export version, the T-72M, have become the subject of numerous modernisation programmes to extend their useful service lives. Even to list the number of possible T-72 upgrades and enhancements on offer would cover many pages.

T-72 component and system upgrade programmes or packages have been offered by nations as disparate as Belgium, Slovenia and the Ukraine, to mention but a few. They cover virtually every aspect of the T-72, from protection measures to complete power pack replacements by more powerful and economic equivalents. Fire control is another T-72 upgrade favourite, some proposals leading to the introduction of guided gun-launched projectiles, such as the 9M119 Svir, to increase combat effectiveness. The Ukraine has even offered a T-72 conversion with a 120 mm gun and an autoloader. Many of these proposals have so far failed to pass the prototype stage but elements of others have been adopted. So have drastic conversions to armoured recovery vehicles and bridge layers.

It should not be forgotten that the first major T-72 upgrade was carried out in the former Yugoslavia with their M-84 and M-84A. Since the break-up of the former federation into its constituent states, Croatia retained the most potential to develop the T-84 further, this time to a level known as the Degman. This programme is continuing although funds are short and the projected Degman production line may never be fully established. The Degman features several improvements, such as a fire suppression system, active armour panels and several internal electronics updates.

The T-72 is not the only Russian tank to receive upgrade attentions, for the earlier T-54/55 tanks are still around in considerable numbers. Once again, all manner of T-54/55 updates and upgrades have been devised, covering a range of topics similar to that for the T-72. Some of them, such as the T-55M from the Omsk Plant for Transport, are perhaps over-ambitious. In effect, the Omsk T-55M package adds an extra road wheel each side and replaces the existing 100 mm gun with a 125 mm 2A46M model. A revised fire control system is installed and no doubt there are power pack options, all intended to bring the old T-55 up to near T-80 standards. The main problem for the T-55M, and many comparable projects, seems to be that the cost of incorporating all the extensive updates involved (the extra road wheel, for instance, means a virtual rear hull rebuild) would be so costly that it would probably be easier to purchase a new tank and be done with it.

It may well emerge that many old T-54/55s will end up being converted to heavy duty IFVs carrying five infantry in addition to the crew of two, as typified by the BTR-T from the Omsk Plant for Transport. This is a heavily armoured IFV (the armour is 100 mm thick in places and is supplemented with explosive reactive armour tiles) with the option of a small turret carrying a KPB 30 mm 2A42 cannon and anti-tank missiles. The high level of protection for the occupants has to be paid for by a weight penalty of 38.5 tonnes, but it provides another indication of the path future IFVs might follow. Proponents of this approach are the Israelis. They were the first to adopt a heavily armoured `assault' APC, the Achzarit, based on much-modified captured T-54/55 chassis. The origins of the Achzarit date back to 1987, with the IDF once again placing AFV protection paramount over other design factors.

T-80, T-90 and T-95

The T-80 was intended to be the replacement for the T-72 series but this never happened as production was terminated well before it could come near T-72 totals. The main change from the T-72 was a gas turbine power pack. Otherwise, the T-72 and T-80 are difficult to tell apart visually. The 125 mm gun is retained, together with the ability to fire laser- or radio-guided gun-launched projectiles.

The 125 mm gun is also carried over to the T-90 series, which reverted to a more conventional diesel power pack. The gas turbine turned out to be expensive both in unit price and running terms. There is the option of installing a Western Bloc power pack should it be required. Despite its designation, the T-90 is basically an updated T-72. As on the T-80, numerous electronic improvements have been added, including the TShU-1 Shtora missile jamming system, produced by TsNII Stali, and integral reactive armour rather than add-on panels. An export model, the T-90S, was developed and adopted by India who has ordered a batch prior to undertaking licence production locally.

While the T-80 did obtain some measure of sales success, even managing to obtain orders for 33 from South Korea and 41 from Cyprus, the Russian armed forces were the main recipients with an estimated 3500. Pakistan took 320 and Ukraine 273. An indication of the troubles ahead emerged when some of these export orders were sold directly from stocks originally intended for the former Soviet armed forces.

Although the early post-Soviet era financial difficulties are now much less severe than they once where, it seems that they could still affect the prospects of the next Russian tank, the so-called T-95. No details of this vehicle have yet emerged although speculation points to a completely novel design with the main gun, possibly a 135 mm smoothbore, housed in a low, unmanned turret. The crew of three are embedded deep in the hull for maximum protection, viewing the outside world through an array of optical and sensor devices. The exact status of the T-95 is uncertain, although it appears that a number have been manufactured.

Challenger 2

Almost as soon as the Challenger 1 entered service during the mid 1980s, Vickers Defence Systems proposed its replacement. Until then, British tank development had been carried out under state-run auspices but Vickers broke that mould by offering to carry out the entire development process themselves, without any state intervention other than testing. The offer was adopted on the understanding that the result, the Challenger 2, basically an upgraded Challenger 1, would be subjected to what amounted to the most rigorous reliability and other acceptance tests ever set for any AFV. The Challenger 2 passed those tests with credit and has been in British Army service since 1998. With the Challenger 2 in service, 228 refurbished Challenger 1s (Al Hussein) were donated to Jordan, the last scheduled for delivery by 2002.

The total Challenger 2 order for the British Army was for 386, plus 22 driver training tanks, the last to be delivered during early 2002. Oman added to the order book by taking delivery of a further 38 tanks, the only export order to date. The export model, the Challenger 2E, has the usual Perkins V-12 diesel power pack replaced by a German MTU EuroPowerPack V-12 diesel, plus some changes to make it more amenable to operations in hot environments.

The Challenger 2's L30 gun, 55 calibres long, is rifled. It thus has its own ammunition suite, including the RO Defence DU Charm APFSDS round, lethally effective at ranges of well over 3000 m. Turret and gun drives are all-electric. Firing accuracy is greatly assisted by the provision of a Thales Optronics roof-mounted stabilised sight (developed in conjunction with Sagem) integrated into an advanced Computing Devices Canada (now part of General Dynamics Land Systems) fire control system not far removed from that installed in the M1A1 Abrams. This system allows the commander to select a further target while one is still being engaged by the gunner, the turret and gun automatically moving onto the new target following the flick of a switch by the commander. The gunner and commander are both provided with thermal imagers.

K1 and K1A1

The Republic of Korea army requested a tank to re-equip its armoured units during the early 1980s. General Dynamics of the USA was awarded a contract to design and develop a tank that could be manufactured within South Korea by the Hyundai Precision and Industry Company. Not surprisingly, the General Dynamics submission closely resembles the M1 Abrams, although those resemblances are deceptive. The vehicle, the K1, is much lighter than the Abrams and powered by a German MTU diesel. One K1 oddity is a mixed hydraulic and torsion bar suspension that permits the vehicle to `kneel' forwards. This is not just a gimmick but also a very useful feature that provides an extended gun lower elevation arc when operating in hilly terrain. On the K1 the gun is a US 105 mm M68A1.

Although production totals for the K1 remain classified, it is understood that over 1000 were delivered before attentions switched to an uprated version, the K1A1. This variant has a 120 mm M256 smooth bore gun (the US licence-built variant of the Rheinmetall gun) and an enhanced fire control system to match. Other changes include the provision for a new, locally developed commander's sight, a thermal imaging capability and improved hull sealing for operations in watery terrain.

Armoured recovery vehicle and bridge layer versions of the K1 have appeared, the latter with assistance from Vickers, while a slightly revised tank model known as the K1-M was developed for export sales. One prospective customer for the K1-M was assumed to be Malaysia but, as so often has happened in recent years, when the time came to making a firm acceptance no decision could be made. This was mainly due to the fragile state of the Malaysian economy at that time, although it is understood that the requirement still exists.

New Wine in Old Bottles

As with fighter aircraft, it is highly unlikely that a single nation will be able to afford the development of a brand-new main battle tank in the future. The last single-nation ground-up new tank will probably have been the Leclerc. But even then, and particularly since the fall of the Berlin wall, affordability is also affecting current tank sales. Many nations that until recently had ambitious acquisitions plans are being compelled to either shorten their lists or envisage upgrades.

Current-generation tanks are a magic spares bin in this respect, since most of their essential components are now modular, take less space while offering higher performance. What is more positive is that some of these components - particularly electronics, or vetronics in this case - were from their inception developed in order to be upgradeable in future. Let us have a look at the main components of a tank:

* Hull

* Powertrain

* Turret

* Gun

* Drives

* Vetronics

* Armour

Today, a number of these components are available either as off-the-shelf items or derivatives. Armour constitutes a truly vital upgrade option. However, one must take care not to overload the vehicle or the engine will also need replacing. Vetronics (which includes sights) are generally modular are arguably the easiest to fit. Drives are possibly a challenge as switching from hydraulic to electric may require de facto a change of vetronics if their virtues are to be exploited to the full. Guns, if they are of older and smaller calibres, must be changed to 120 mm; some are being offered to fit existing turrets with only sensible structural modification levels. So clearly, any undertaking has to be carefully analysed to make sense and remain within the possibilities of one's pocket. The following options are by no means exhaustive, but provide examples of what can be achieved:

* Turrets: Possibly the most drastic upgrade is the outright change of turret. This has been recently achieved by GDLS, which has adapted an M1 turret to an M60.

Giat, on the other hand, has recently completed the feasibility studies on a new turret designated T21, which uses the same basic gun as the Leclerc's. Why not use the actual turret then? For two reasons: one being the cost factor, the other weight. Much in gear with a philosophy that it has applied to its own products, Giat would be inclined to apply armour modularity to suit tactical and weight requirements, with a real protection against hollow charges and APFSDS and yet remain within fifteen tonnes. The turret would thus fit T-72s, Leopard 1s and M-60s.

* Guns: Here upgrade examples come from Rheinmetall with its new L55 barrel, and from Ruag Land Systems with the 120 mm Compact Gun originally developed for the new-generation Swiss Army Tank project that was subsequently dropped in favour of the Leo 2 for costs reasons. The gun is used as part of the upgrade kit for the Jordanian KADDB M-60 modernisation project. Rheinmetall is also offering its L44 RH120-20 to Leo 1 operators.

* Vetronics: This domain is the playground of many. Recent examples that also concern the Jordanian M60 upgrade mentioned above come from Raytheon and provide an integrated fire control suite that involves the gunner's primary sight, a line of sight platform, a Hire thermal sensor for both gunner and driver, an Elite II eye-safe laser rangefinder and a digital ballistic computer. Textron, for its part, supplies a stabilisation suite.

* Engines: In this slot of the upgrade niche, Perkins offers a number of engine options, but it appears that MTU reigns supreme with extremely compact power packs that greatly facilitate the shoehorning operation.

Last but not least, Diehl offers a wide range of tracks. Not only are these extremely long lasting, they also have highly secured pads which adds to safety when in urban environments.

Turning to upgrade kits for Russian tanks, these have been for the most part of Western (Curtiss-Wright, MBDA, Raytheon, Textron, Officine Galileo etc) and Israeli origin, and extensively covered by Armada in the past. However, things are changing in this domain as well and Kemp in Russia is now offering T-55 and T-72 upgrade components amongst which are, it is worthy of note, electric drives. There are apparently still several tens of thousands of T-55s around and in the countries of the former Soviet Union alone, T-72 fleets total over 7000 units.

For the T-72, Kemp has devised several stabilisation options, one of which consists of an electric traverse drive, a compact hydraulic elevation actuator as well as a new gyro and stabiliser control unit. Stabilisation accuracy has been increased to 0.3/0.45 mrad, but according to Kemp 0.2/0.3 could be achieved soon.

Uralvagonzavod, recently met by Armada, also has a T-72 upgrade package up its sleeve, which can be a la carte up to thorough. Basically, Uralvagonzavod offers the transfer of a number of systems developed for the T-80, 84 and 90, which means that readily proven systems are used. A number of prototypes have been made on company funds with help from the Ministry of Defence and the Russian State Agency for Conventional Arms. The Upgrade includes a 736 kW (1000 hp) B-92C2 diesel V-12, Motovilikha 125 mm 2A46M gun, automatic thermal imaging target tracker, multi-channel gunner's sight, multimode PNK-4M commander's sight, electromagnetic mine detonator (a strong electromagnetic coil that detonates mines in front of the vehicle), to name but a few of the principal components. Uralvagonzavod is also able to produce a full training system.

On the T-55 front, two upgrades were featured at the recent Omsk defence exhibition. One involved an updated base chassis with additional bogie wheels to cope with extra armour protection (explosive reactive similar to that of the T-80U) and a new turret boasting a 125 mm gun, loading mechanism and ammunition stowage in the rear of the turret. Other features include a new electric stabiliser, state-of-the-art fire control system and communication means. The engine delivers 690 hp.

The other did not seem to differ a lot from the base model but featured engine boost to 620 hp, explosive reactive armour mounted on the hull and turret, fully renovated fire control system able to handle anti-armour guided projectiles, new sight, stabiliser and communications suite as well as new Kemp stabilisation and drive kits.