Impact of a career intervention on at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels, academic achievement, and self-esteem.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a 9-week career intervention program on at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels, self-esteem, and academic achievement. This study was based on a pretest and posttest design using a control group. Data were collected from 27 at-risk middle school students representing the experimental group and 30 at-risk middle school students making up the control group. Modes of measurement consisted of the Crites Career Maturity Inventory (measuring attitude and competency levels), the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and grades. Data for this study were coded numerically and analyzed using inferential t tests and analysis of covariance. Qualitative interviews were conducted with teachers of 5 randomly selected participants from the experimental group to compare self-esteem and academic achievement prior and subsequent to the treatment. Although results revealed that the sample's career maturity attitude and competency levels and academic achievement improved, such increases were not statistically significant. Recommendations for future research and implications for school counselors are discussed.

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The readiness of at-risk students to develop the kinds of skills that will prepare them to pursue a host of career options and eventually make them marketable to future employers is a challenge presently confronting educators, parents, school counselors, and pupils in the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Education (1995), Fouad and Keeley (1992), McLaughlin and Vacha (1992), and Rojewski, Wicklein, and Schell (1995), high school dropouts typically (a) show behavioral problems in the classroom, (b) have poor grades and test scores, (c) exhibit chronic absenteeism, (d) have parents who do not have high school diplomas, (e) have a sibling or siblings who dropped out of high school, (f) are in the lower sociocconomic bracket, and (g) have career maturity levels that are lower than those not considered at-risk for failure. Students considered to be at-risk are in jeopardy of dropping out of school. Unfortunately, these high school dropouts confront obstacles preventing them from succeeding in the world of work.

Current data indicate that 11.2 percent of our country's 16-to-24-vear-olds are high school dropouts (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Approximately 68 percent of men and 45 percent of women who have not obtained a high school diploma enter the labor force (U.S. Department of Labor, 2001). These individuals do not possess the necessary skills required to succeed in today's job market. As an example, the unemployment rate of high school dropouts is 28.2 percent, whereas the unemployment rate of high school graduates is 18.4 percent (U.S. Departmcnt of Labor, 1999). In a like manner, it is estimated that female high school dropouts can expect to earn $238,000 less during their lives than female high school graduatcs (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2001). It is estimated that male high school dropouts can expect to earn $462,000 lss during their lives than male high school graduates (U.S. Department of Commerce). Thus, as the United States begins the 21st century, an issue that is gaining prominence is the career developmental readiness of at-risk students to enter the world of work.

At-risk pupils who are involved in career exploration and awareness activities at the middle school level are more likely to establish an effective program plan of study for high school, thus better preparing them for their future career selections (Medina & Drummond, 1993; Pittman & Chalker, 1994; Rojewski, 1994; Rojewski et al., 1995). This supports the notion that beginning career interventions at the high school level is ill-advised, suggesting instead that career interventions need to begin at the elementary or middlc school level to be effective. By the high school years, many at-risk students are well on their way to dropping out of the educational system (Cairns, Cairns, & Neckerman, 1989; U.S. Department of Education, 1995). There is agreement in the literaturc that implementing career interventions at the middle school level is an important factor that helps to incrcasc at risk students' career maturity level (Benz, 1996; Loughead, Liu, & Middleton, 1998; O'Brien, Dukstein, Jackson, Tomlinson, & Kamatuka, 1999), solidifying his or her self-esteem (D'Andrea & Daniels, 1992; Medina & Drummond, 1993; Otte & Sharpe, 1979; Robitschek, 1996; Wood, Hillman, & Sanilowsky, 1996) and academic motivation (Otte & Sharpe).

Given the need for career interventions at the middle school level, there are surprisingly few studies that investigate the effects of a career intervention on at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels, self-esteem, and academic achievement. This study sought to address this need to underscore the importance of career interventions at the middle school level. For at-risk middle school students to see the relevance of learning to their future career choice, it is necessary to determine if career interventions at the middle school level will help at-risk students' self-esteem and academic performances. Specifically, this study investigated the following research question: What effect does a career intervention have on at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels, self-esteem, and academic achievement?

METHOD

Participants

The sample selected for this study was at-risk sixth- and seventh-grade middle school students who were in danger of failing during the 1999-2000 academic school year. These students were randomly chosen from a middle school located in a suburban area of Baltimore County that currently serves sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students. The total population of the school is 1,080 students; 98 percent are African-American, eligible for Title I federal funding. To qualify for Title I federal funding, at least 80 percent of the school's students must be on free or reduced lunch. Fifty six percent of this school's students are on free or reduced lunch. In relation to other Baltimore County public schools, the middle school chosen to participate in this study is identified as having (a) lower standardized test scores, (b) fewer students in gifted and talented classes or on the honor roll, (c) lower attendance rates, (d) a greater number of suspensions, (e) a greater number of students in free or reduced lunch programs, and (f) fewer students who receive at least average or above-average grades (Baltimore County Public Schools, Office of Research, 2000).

From a total of 164 at-risk candidates in this school's 1999-2000 potential failure list, 32 were randomly assigned to participate in the experimental group, and 30 were randomly assigned to participate in the control group. Of the original 32 members in the experimental group, 5 withdrew during the treatment due to excessive absenteeism, prolonged suspension, and concern over missing class time. As a result, 27 at-risk students participated in the career intervention program. A sample size of at least 40 at-risk students in the experimental and control groups was sought; however, due to an unavailability of classroom space and student withdrawals, a total of 57 pupils (experimental and control groups) participated in this study. The students who participated in the study (experimental and control groups) were promoted to grades 7 and 8 for the 2000-2001 school year despite their below average scholastic performances during the preceding academic year. There was a 78 percent positive response rate from parents who wanted their children to take an active role in this study.

Intervention

Career Targets (Durgin, 1998) was chosen as the career intervention for this study. It is a career counseling program that allows middle school students to explore occupations in conjunction with their high school planning. Middle school students in the experimental group used this educational tool as a guide for high school preparation and individual career planning. In particular, this three-stage program consists of the following parts (Durgin): First, at-risk middle school students participate in a career exploration inventory to determine their likes and dislikes. At the completion of this activity, each at-risk experimental group member lists his or her three highest scoring career clusters. Second, at risk middle school students learn more about various career clusters and related occupations. In an activity, students match specific careers with the associated career cluster. Third, at-risk middle school students acquire more knowledge about the skills, training, and education needed to qualify for selected occupations. These pupils complete "My High School Planner," which requires a proposed list of high school classes that each experimental group member would need to prepare for jobs in his or her respective career cluster.

In addition, these students were shown interviewing techniques, and they were exposed to job application and resume strategies (Baltimore County Board of Education, Department of Student Services, 1996). For example, participants in the experimental group practiced their interviewing skills on each other and completed sample job application forms. Typical interview questions included the following: "Tell me how you learned about this job?" "What special talents and interests do you have that might help you to do this job well?" "What is it about the job that you think you will like?" (taken from the Department of Student Services).

At-risk pupils in the experimental group also completed a "Fact or Fiction/Resource Sheet" designed to test their career knowledge. In this activity, true-or-false responses were sought for statements such as "Once people choose a career they tend to stay in it until they retire" and "What is learned in school has little to do with one's career" (Baltimore County Board of Education, Department of Student Services, 1996).

Finally, a professor from Coppin State College provided short- and long-term recommendations for remaining in school to participants in the experimental group. This presentation also discussed the connection between school and the world of work. At risk students were asked to write down occupations that were of particular interest. As a way of connecting school with work, this guest speaker conducted a discussion with these at-risk pupils regarding the qualifications required for each career cluster. Included in the recommendations for remaining in school were to join a talent search program, which assists students with study skills and test-taking techniques and provides information to applicants about scholarships to participating colleges and universities; and to seek assistance from teachers when course material is not understood.

The researchers administered this treatment to the 27 at-risk middle school students (experimental group) once a week during a randomly selected school day and period for a 9-week academic quarter. The control group continued to participate in regularly scheduled classes and did not engage in the career awareness, exploration, or planning activities.

Materials

Career maturity. The researchers used the 1995 Crites Career Maturity Inventory (Crites & Savickas, 1995) to measure the sample's career maturity level. The Maturity Inventory consists of an attitude scale and a competence test. Each part consists of 25 statements. The participant either "agrees" or "disagrees" with the statement. Scores can range from a low of 1 to a high of 25. Higher scores on the scales indicate a greater career maturity level. The attitude scale takes into consideration the career choice process and illustrates how career choices are made (Crites, 1981). The competence test assesses students' knowledge of their attitudes contributing to their initial career choice (Crites). Written on a fifth- and sixth-grade reading level and geared for all ages and minority groups, the 1995 Crites Career Maturity Inventory can be used for both school and non school populations (Crites & Savickas). Porter (1999) reported a Cronbach coefficient alpha of .81 on the attitude scale, and a Cronbach coefficient alpha of .66 on the competence test. With regard to validity, Crites and Savickas stated, "The deliberate conceptual deduction of the competence test ... supports the test's substantive validity as a measure of relevant variables in contemporary development theory" (p. 34).

Self-esteem. This study used the school form of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1989) designed for students ages 8 through 15. Students respond by indicating "like me" or "unlike me." The inventory consists of 58 items, and 50 of those items are related to the students' peers, parents, school, and personal interests. A total score is reported in addition to four subscales. The subscales (Coopersmith) are general self; social self-peers, home-parents, and school-academic. A separate score is disclosed for a lie scale (8 items), which measures the students' defensiveness in their response (Coopersmith). Scores can range from a low of 0 to a high of 100. Higher scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory indicate positive self-esteem. Kimball (1972) reported an internal consistency reliability ranging from .87 to .92. Simon and Simon (1975) disclosed a concurrent validity of .33. Coopersmith (1967) also found that self-esteem inventory scores are significantly related to the willingness to express unpopular opinions.

Academic achievement. Academic achievement was measured by the participants' grades on their quarterly report cards. Grade point averages were computed for each participant (all course areas) be(ore and after the career intervention for the 2000 2001 school year. The scale for grade point average ranges from 0 to 4.0, with higher numerical averages indicating greater academic achievement.

Procedure

The researchers contacted and informed the middle school principal about the nature of the study and assured study anonymity. Following the principal's approval, they sought permission from Baltimore County Public Schools' director of research and data analysis. After receiving confirmation from the George Washington University's Committee on Research with Human Subjects, teachers of the middle school were given a detailed explanation of the purposes, rationale, and procedures of this study.

The researchers sent a letter detailing the purposes of this study home to parents or legal guardians (hand delivered to those randomly selected students). Those parents and legal guardians willing to allow their children to participate in this study were asked to respond by checking off and signing the appropriate boxes indicated on the typed sheet.

The Crites Career Maturity Inventory (Crites & Savickas, 1995) and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem hwcntory (Coopersmith, 1981) were given to the experimental and control groups before the implementation of the 9-week career intervention. These pretests were administered in groups of 15, spanning 4 days (2 days each for the experimental and control groups). After the completion of the intervention, both groups were given posttests using the same instruments. The researchers hand scored both of these instruments by following guidelines specified in the instruction manuals. The researchers analyzed the responses by using the SPSS 10.0 database, a comprehensive software package designed to generate statistical results based on raw data input.

Subsequent to the administration of the career intervention, one of the researchers interviewed teachers from a subsample of 5 randomly selected students (2 teachers per student) from the experimental group to determine if these at-risk middle school students' academic achievement and self: esteem improved, remained the same, or declined during this period. The interviews were semi-structured, lasting approximately 20 minutes. Although these interviews were audiotaped, the interviewees' identities remain confidential. After the completion of the interviews, the researcher transcribed the interviewees' comments into narrative form. An independent reader reviewed a random sample of the researcher's taped interviews for inter-rater reliability of interview analyses.

RESULTS

Pretest Differences Between Experimental and Control Groups

An independent t test was used to determine the statistical significance of differences between the experimental and control groups before the career intervention with regard to career maturity levels, self: esteem, and academic achievement. A .05 level of significance was used. No statistically significant differences were found before the career intervention between the experimental and control groups for career maturity-attitude, t(57) = -.938, p = .352; and career maturity-competency, t(57) = -1.009, p = .318. Similarly, no statistically significant differences were found before the: career intervention between the experimental and control groups for self-esteem, t(57) = .468, p = .642; and academic achievement, t(57) = .669, p = .507. Thus, an initial equivalence was found between the experimental and control groups based on their pretest scores.

Descriptive Statistics

Pretest and posttest scores on each of the dependent variables were calculated for the experimental and control groups. Posttest career maturity-attitude scores for the experimental group (M = 15.37, SD = 3.410) rose slightly from pretest scores (M = 14.52, SD = 3.344). The control group's career maturity-attitude posttest scores (M = 14.83, SD = 3.343) were lower than at pretest (M = 15.33, SD = 3.209). Similarly, posttest career maturity-competency scores for the experimental group (M = 15.26, SD = 3.058) were higher than at pretest (M = 14.22, SD = 2.636). The control group's career maturity-competency posttest scores (M = 14.27, SD = 3.162) were slightly lower than pretest scores (M = 14.93, SD = 2.677).

Posttest self-esteem scores for the experimental group (M= 69.63, SD = 17.303) were slightly higher than at pretest (M = 69.26, SD = 13.011). Posttest self-esteem scores for the control group (M = 70.87, SD = 14.760) were several points higher than at pretest (M = 67.33, SD = 17.462).

With regard to academic achievement (grade point average), posttest scores (M = 1.83, S = .56747) for the experimental group were slightly higher than at pretest (M = 1.72, SD = .51869). On the other hand, posttest scores (M = 1.58, SD = .70012) for the control group were slightly lower than at pretest (M = 1.62, SD = .59722).

Tests for Treatment Effects

To test for treatment effects, the researcher performed a paired t test to determine if there were any statistically significant gains or losses subsequent to the 9-week career intervention program with regard to career maturity attitude scale and competency test, self-esteem, and academic achievement.

No statistically significant differences were found for career maturit3>attitude in the experimental group, t(27) = -1.031, p = .312; and in the control group, t(30) = .974, p = .338. Similarly, no statistically significant differences were found for career maturity-competency in the experimental group, t(27) = -1.579, p = 127; and in the control group, t(30) = 1.081, p = .288. Nor were statistically significant differences found for self esteem in the experimental group, t(27) = -.144, p = .887. However, a statistically significant gain was found for self-esteem in the control group, t(30) = -2.351, p = .026. Finally, no statistically significant differences were found for academic achievement in the experimental group, t(27) = -1.224, p = .232; and in the control group, t(30) = .385, p = .703.

Posttest Differences Between Experimental and Control Groups

An independent t test was performed to determine if there were statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups after the career intervention with regard to career maturity levels, self-esteem, and academic achievement (see Table 1). No statistically significant differences were found after the career intervention between the experimental and control groups for career maturity-attitude, t(57) = .600, p = .551; and career maturity-competency, t(57) = 1.202, p = .235. Similarly, no statistically significant differences were found after the career intervention between the experimental and control groups for self-esteem, t(57) = -.291, p = .772; and academic achievement, t(57) = 1.432, p = .158.

An analysis of covariance test was performed for each variable to corroborate the results of the independent t tests for the respective posttest scores (see Table 2). Pretest scores represented the covariate on each of the dependent measures with an overall .05 alpha level. The homogeneity of regression assumption was not rejected for each variable. The analysis of covariance test indicated that the differences between the experimental and control groups were not statistically significant with regard to career maturity-attitude, F(1,55) = 1.15, p = .288; career maturity-competency, F(1, 55) = 2.48, p = .121; self-esteem, F(1, 55) = .961, p = .331; and academic achievement, F(1, 55) = 1.78, p = .187.

In summary, posttest scores revealed that the experimental and control groups were equivalent.

Qualitative Findings--interview Summary

Data response sets can differ based on the criteria used for assessment. Quantitatively, improved academic achievement was based on at-risk middle school students' grade point averages for the third and fourth academic quarters before and after this study's career intervention. Results indicated that 11 out of 27, or 41%, of the students in the experimental group improved their grades. Contrary to this descriptive statistic, 8 out of 10, or 80%, of the teachers who participated in the interviews held that the sampled at-risk students improved their academic performance. However, the criteria used to measure academic performance during the interviews was based, for the most part, on the teachers' perceptions of the students' academic motivation, their classroom participation, and whether the at-risk students attempted more work.

At-risk middle school students' self-esteem was another variable whose results differed a great deal based on method of measurement. Quantitatively, at risk middle school students in the experimental group took the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory prior and subsequent to this study's career intervention. Results showed that 10 out of 27, or 37%, of these students sampled indicated that their self-esteem improved after the career intervention. Qualitatively, based on the comments from the 10 teachers who were interviewed, 7 out of 10, or 70%, held that these at-risk students' self-esteem had increased. These comments were based on teachers' observation of at-risk students' interactions with other students, student classroom participation, and their willingness to go to the chalkboard to attempt a problem.

DISCUSSION

Impact of Career intervention on At-Risk Middle School Students' Career Maturity Levels

Twice as many at risk students in the experimental group compared to the control group increased their career awareness and competency levels subsequent to this study's career intervention. This finding is consistent with recent literature such as Outen (1995) and O'Brien et al. (1999) who implemented similar career developmental programs resulting in at risk samples (sample sizes of 168 and 58, respectively) acquiring greater career knowledge and awareness required for success in a specific job. However, the gains in such students' career awareness and competency levels in this study were not statistically significant. The fact that the increase in the career maturity attitude levels of this study's at-risk middle school students was not statistically significant may be due to the short duration of the intervention. The researchers suggest that some at-risk students may require involvement in longer career intervention programs to recognize the opportunities affordable to them. Further, a change in career attitude may not be immediately evident because it may take some students longer to adjust to newer ideas. It is possible that at-risk students' parents may have experienced difficulties in obtaining their vocational goals. These perceived career related barriers may have had significant influence on at-risk students' career exploration process. Also, it may be that a more extensive career intervention is required--not just a weekly class one period a day. Therefore, middle school counselors should incorporate career intervention programs designed to assist at-risk students with the opportunity to explore various occupations and match such students' interests and abilities with specific job qualifications.

Students' career developmental process should begin during the elementary school years, according to the Office of Guidance and Counseling in Baltimore County. Board of Education's Department of Student Services (1996). Many of this study's at-risk students were not exposed to career awareness activities in elementary school. The researchers suggest that this may have been a significant factor accounting for delayed career maturity competency levels of this study's at-risk youths.

Impact of Career Intervention on At-Risk Middle School Students' Self-Esteem

Of importance was the sample's better than expected "average" showing on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. The researchers held that these at-risk middle school students would score below average in self-esteem. It can be hypothesized that sometimes individuals tend to respond with socially acceptable answers in an attempt to please the researcher and, as importantly, themselves. Nonetheless, following the career intervention program, quantitative data indicated no appreciable gain in the experimental group's self-esteem (p = .887). It is possible that self-esteem might not significantly increase because at-risk students perceive the reality of their plight and the obstacles they confront. Those obstacles would be a lack of economic resources, being raised by single-parent families, or experiencing discrimination based on ethnicity or race. However, this would be inconsistent with the results of the qualitative interviews.

Seven of the 10 teachers who spoke about 5 randomly selected participants from the experimental group noted a positive change in the students' self-esteem. The qualitative results of this study suggest that an important component of middle school career interventions is self-esteem enhancement. At-risk students typically have difficulty in determining and using their personal strengths to their own advantage. Career development interventions should include experiences that strengthen at-risk students' beliefs about accomplishing possible, realistic vocational aspirations and employing techniques to achieve those goals. Interestingly, the qualitative findings of this investigation reflect some of the same notions expressed in the Robitschek (1996) study, which found increases in students' hope subsequent to participation in a summer jobs program.

Among the unexpected results was a statistically significant increase in self-esteem for members of the control group (p = .026). One interpretation of this finding is that the gain may have occurred because the control group students may have thought that their self-esteem was suppose to improve. To avoid embarrassing low scores, participants may have anticipated that the researchers expected the control group's level of self-esteem to improve during the posttest.

Impact of Career Intervention on At-Risk Middle School Students' Academic Achievement

Subsequent to this study's career intervention, the experimental group's cumulative mean grade point average improved more than 1/10th of a point; however, the control group's cumulative mean grade point average decreased marginally. A greater percentage of at-risk middle school students in the experimental group increased their grades than those at-risk students in the control group. These results mirror the outcomes of the Evans and Burck (1992) and Otte and Sharpe (1979) studies, which indicated an increase in students' academic levels and motivation. Although the gain in the experimental group's academic achievement was not statistically significant, it is notable that during the 10 qualitative interviews with teachers, 8 of those instructors detected a favorable difference with respect to the students' academic motivation, class room participation, and willingness to attempt more work. These factors could explain the grade point average gain. Therefore, the researchers recommend career developmental programs that integrate educational experiences with the world of work. Many at-risk students are more likely to drop out of high school because such students do not understand the relationship between academic success and the world of work (McLaughlin & Vacha, 1992).

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Because the impact of the 9-week career intervention was not found to be statistically significant with regard to the experimental group's career maturity levels, academic achievement, and self-esteem, it is recommended that a longer-term studs, be implemented to monitor the long-term effects of the career intervention. For example, it may take at-risk students longer to change poor study habits.

Another possibility for the lack of statistically significant changes in the dependent variables is that the study's treatment may need to be strengthened. The researchers suggest that follow-up investigators search for middle schools willing to do more than a once-a-week career intervention program. Additional features that could be incorporated include an array of guest speakers from different settings and occupations and job shadowing experiences.

The researchers conducted qualitative, semistructured interviews with 5 randomly selected at-risk students from the experimental group as part of this study. Future studies should include interviews with at-risk students in the control group to allow for a better basis of comparison.

Implications for School Counselors

Although not statistically significant, this study demonstrated that at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels (attitude and competency) and academic achievement improved after the implementation of the career intervention program. This has several implications for middle school counselors who provide services for at-risk pupils.

First, career development should serve as a continuous component among students' educational experiences. For example, career counseling interventions should occur during the latter grades of elementary school to increase students' career awareness levels. This would lead to career exploration occurring at the middle school level. With increased career awareness and vocational knowledge at the elementary and middle school levels, at-risk middle school students will be prepared to make more informed decisions when selecting the high school program most likely to help meet their career goals.

Second, school and workplaces should be linked to build partnerships with employers for mentoring programs, job shadowing, and possible internships. This will permit at-risk middle school students the opportunity of comprehending how courses are integrated with potential work experiences.

Third, classroom-based career guidance lessons should be provided to teach at-risk students how to plan for the future and embark in realistic educational and career goals. Given growing student caseloads, this strategy provides school counselors the opportunity to interact with a larger number of at risk students while reacting to students' essential needs.

Fourth, job shadowing opportunities should be provided to permit at-risk students workplace exposure. Similarly, implementing a 1-day career fair will allow at-risk students the opporttinit3/ to interact with various employers from different facets of the world of work.

Finally, as part of the career intervention, at-risk students should be given the opportunity to participate in group counseling sessions to assist them in developing their career exploration skills.

CONCLUSIONS

The goal of this study was to determine the effect of a career intervention program on at-risk middle school students' career maturity levels, self-esteem, and academic achievement. It is clear that to arrive at a more definitive and realistic answer to this question, a 2-to-3-year follow-up longitudinal study is needed to monitor these pupils' long-term progress. However, although not statistically significant, there was evidence suggesting that the sample's career maturity levels (attitude and competency) and academic performances improved after the career intervention. As a result of these findings, it can be deduced that as students begin to connect their academic accomplishments with the expectations of the world of work, they are more likely to understand the significance of remaining in school and may make more prudent decisions concerning their short- and long-term futures.

It is important, especially at the middle school level, that educators and counselors continue to provide the resources necessary to bolster at-risk students' academic and career skills, thereby enabling them to believe that some of their future dreams can come true. The researchers hope that this study will provide the foundation for future long-term investigations testing the assertion that career interventions at the middle school level will reduce posibility that at-risk students will drop out of high school.

Table 1. Experimental and Control Group Differences Based on Posttest
Scores

Variable                       t        df     Sig. (2-tailed)

Career Maturity-Attitude      .600      55         .551 *
Career Maturity-Competency   1.202      55         .235 *
Self-Esteem                  -.291      55         .772 *
Academic Achievement         1.432      55         .158 *

* Not significant at .05 level

Table 2. Posttest Score Differences Between Experimental and
Control Groups Based on Analysis of Covariance

Variable                     Mean Square      F      Sig.

Career Maturitv-Attitude        11.016      1.15    .288 *
Career Maturity-Competency      22.014      2.48    .121
Self-Esteem                    106.61        .961   .331 *
Academic Achievement             .376       1.78    .187 *

* Not significant at .05 level

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Harry L. Legum, Ph.D., NCC, LCPC, is an assistant professor at Coppin State University in Baltimore. E-mail: [e-mail]

Carol H. Hoare, Ed.D., is a professor of Human Development and Human Resource Development at the George Washington University in Washington, DC E-mail: [e-mail]