Identifying community employment program staff competencies: a critical incident approach. (Employment Staff Competencies).

Achieving high quality employment outcomes in vocational rehabilitation requires adequate inservice training for staff involved in community employment services (Rogan & Held, 1999). Essential to effective inservice training is identifying the competencies (i.e. knowledge and skills) required by practitioners. As the understanding of best practices in the provision of community employment services has evolved, the knowledge and skill staff are expected to master has grown in complexity and sophistication (Degeneffe, 2000; Rogan & Held, 1999). Sandberg (2000) referred to the complex interaction between skills and knowledge required in specific employment contexts as "work competency."

The level of prior education and training for staff entering the field as job developers or employment specialists is typically not high. Agosta, Brown and Melda (1993) found, for example, that over one-third (37%) of job coaches had received only a high school education, and 51% had received no more than 8 hours of training prior to beginning their job. As a result, staff development is important to developing work competency for these employees. Often, staff development training topics are developed from reviews of literature, surveys of experts, or a combination of the two. For example, Morgan, Ames, Loosli, Feng and Taylor (1995) surveyed professionals to determine the relative importance of training topics identified from reviews of the literature on supported employment. Shafer, Pardee and Stewart (1999) used a similar procedure to identify staff training needs for the vocational rehabilitation of individuals with mental illness.

Rothwell and Kazanas (1994) have argued that while literature-based and survey-based skill inventories provide useful general information, this approach may not contain the degree of detail or the direct applicability to practice needed to develop effective training. These authors recommended anchoring employee training curricula in an analysis of actual worker functions and on-the-job tasks. Rothwell and Kazanas (1994) discuss methods of information-gathering that more directly capture the skills and knowledge of expert practitioners. One such technique, the critical incident technique, is especially applicable to the development of training curricula for community employment program staff. In the critical incident technique, experienced workers are asked to describe situations or incidents that are specially indicative of or critical to effective job performance. The responses or solutions to critical incidents recommended by experienced job incumbents or their immediate supervisors constitute important employee competencies. Critical incident methods have been widely used to identify work performance factors (Neale, Dunlap, Isenhour & Carroll, 2000) and to develop problem solving and critical thinking skills in paraprofessional education (Burgum & Bridge, 1997; Parker, Webb & D'Souza, 1995). In this study, the critical incident technique is used as a method to identify competencies required to prepare individuals for job development and employment specialist roles.

Method

The first step in the critical incident technique is to identify practitioners whose experience qualifies them to serve as a source of information about critical incidents and related competencies in a given field of endeavor. In New England, the Regional Continuing Education Program for Community Rehabilitation Personnel (RCEP-CRP) hosts a network of community employment mentors. These are experienced staff members of organizations throughout the region. Most network members are program coordinators or "lead staff" responsible for training new staff members within their organizations. Selection is by nomination and an application process that includes documentation of substantial training related to vocational rehabilitation, a minimum of three years of job experience, a letter of reference from a colleague, and a telephone interview. Those selected attend a three-day training seminar in mentoring techniques and remain in contact with one another through quarterly mailings, participation in an email listserv and periodic reunions. In Florida, the Florida Supported Employment Project provides statewide training for employment specialists. As part of their training, trainees are given fieldwork assignments and are required to bring each assignment to a fieldwork advisor to have the project evaluated prior to receiving certification. The fieldwork advisor group members were initially selected based in a nomination and application process. Advisors attend an annual training in advanced-level concepts and techniques in supported employment and mentoring techniques. These two groups were selected as a naturally occurring pool of experienced community employment practitioners.

Data Collection and Respondents

As an initial attempt to apply the critical incident technique to rehabilitation staff training, letters were mailed to the network of 43 Mentors in New England and 28 Fieldwork Advisors in Florida asking each individual to submit descriptions of one or two critical incidents from their experience with individualized community employment. A brief demographic questionnaire and a consent form were included with the letter. A total of 18 incidents were received from 11 (15%) individuals. Incident descriptions were edited where necessary to remove any mention of actions taken to solve the incident, and one incident description was divided into two separate incidents because the scenario combined two distinct events. This procedure thus generated 19 critical incidents.

Next, two incidents were mailed to each Mentor and Fieldwork Advisor along with a request for a description of how to handle the incident and the skills or competencies needed to resolve or prevent the incident. Selections of incidents were randomized such that the same two incidents were never paired, and substitutions were made to insure that no individual received his or her own incident.

Narrative incident solutions were received from 22 individuals, including the 11 individuals who submitted incidents. Eight were men and 14 were women. Three had a high school education, two had associates' degrees, eight had bachelor's degrees and nine had masters' degrees. The years of experience in providing employment support to individuals with disabilities ranged from 3 to 15, with an average of 8.4 years. Those providing incident solutions were about evenly divided between those who work primarily with a mental health population (n = 8), those who work primarily with individuals with developmental disabilities (n = 8), and those who work with a wide range of disabling conditions (n = 6). While the response rate was disappointing, the critical incident technique does not require a large sample size, as its function is to generate sufficient "raw material" for qualitative analysis.

Data Analysis

The narrative responses relating to 44 incident solutions (22 X 2) were analyzed using analytic induction, a qualitative research technique (Berg, 1998; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). The two original researchers and one of the mentors independently coded the incident solutions by attaching one or more summary sentences to each course of action recommended in response to each incident. The summary sentence described the competency being referred to. For example, the sentence "If Carl is unhappy with his job it is time to reevaluate and find a job he will like" was summarized as "assist dissatisfied consumers to find a more satisfactory job."

The three coders compared their lists to generate a consolidated list of competency codes. In most cases (87%), two or more summary statements for the same course of action had essentially the same meaning. For example, one item was worded as "Assist consumers to develop workplace friendships" by one coder and "Help supported employees in making friends and establishing community connections" by another. In those cases (13%) where two or more codes had a different meaning, the researchers reviewed and discussed the narrative data and came to agreement on a satisfactory wording of the code. The wording of some items was further refined to remove duplication, resulting in a final list of 87 staff competencies. These competencies represent a combination of skills and knowledge involved in successfully resolving or preventing critical incidents confronted by staff in the practice of community rehabilitation.

Findings

For convenience, the 87 staff competencies were grouped into three major domains -- employment process competencies, stakeholder interaction competencies, and general competencies. The competencies in each domain are discussed below. Each section begins with one of the critical incident descriptions in italics.

Employment Process Competencies

Sara, a middle aged woman with a diagnosis of depression, worked part-time at a fast food restaurant. Although she appeared to get along with her coworkers, she complained to me on occasion that she thought "the kids" often worked in an irresponsible manner, and that the managers were refusing to address this. One day when she was feeling depressed at work, a manager pointed out to her that "smiling faces" are stressed for all employees and she needed to smile more. Sara took this as a personal attack and unleashed all her built-up frustration at that point, shouting at the manager. She then walked off the job and called me.

Employment process competencies are listed in Table 1. These competencies relate to job development, job analysis and job matching, job training and related supports, behavior and communication, assistance beyond work, and ongoing career planning.

Job development. Skills related to securing a favorable hiring decision from an employer include providing job applicants with training in conducting a job interview and assisting consumers to follow-up on employer contacts. Making sound judgements about the amount of support to provide and developing a ,productive job search partnership with the consumer also fall within this category.

Job analysis and matching. Job analysis and job matching involves assessing work environments and particular job duties, and the fit or match between worker abilities and interests and the demands, reinforcers and culture of the workplace. As the incident description at the beginning of the section illustrates, social styles and preferences are among the factors to be considered. Age differences may sometimes affect social inclusion, and Sara may have been placed in a job with coworkers who are quite a bit younger than herself. Also, since depression is an issue, a better job match for Sara might be a position where smiling is less relevant to job performance.

Job training and related supports. Employment staff must be competent in designing jobs and job accommodations to take advantage of employee strengths and minimize weaknesses. In the process, it is important to ensure that employee cues and prompts are as natural and unobtrusive as possible. Involvement of the employer and coworker not only takes advantage of their knowledge and resources but increases the chance that supports will continue and that new problems will be handled successfully.

Behavior and communication. The competencies in this area relate to being sensitive to consumer communication and able to effectively deal with a range of behaviors. This includes the ability to de-escalate and manage crises and assisting consumers to express negative feelings in appropriate ways. Experienced staff attend to the entire employment process, including such details as how a consumer will negotiate the route from home to the job.

Assistance beyond work. Issues and activities not directly related to employment can easily affect employment outcomes. Consumers may need assistance, for example, in pursuing leisure or volunteer interests or getting to and from work. The freedom and community access offered by paid employment may need to be accompanied by guidance and awareness of options.

Ongoing career planning. The competencies in this area broaden the scope of employment services beyond job maintenance. In addition to monitoring employer satisfaction with the work, expert employment staff also monitor consumer satisfaction with the job. The competencies include finding clues to deeper vocational interests in a consumer's behavior on the job.

Stakeholder Interaction Competencies

A psychosocial rehabilitation agency in urban area was providing employment services to Donna, an individual with severe psychiatric disabilities who was also in one of the agency's residential programs. During a routine contact with the employer where Donna had been placed and doing well for several months, I learned that she had recently been fired for absenteeism. It turned out that the residence staff had began denying her the "privilege" of employment on days when she didn't make her bed in the morning.

Several competencies related to interactions and relationships with groups that can be considered key stakeholders in the employment process. Competencies relating to consumer relationships, working with families, working with employers, and working with professionals and agencies are presented in Table 2.

Consumer relationships. Competencies within this category include gaining an understanding of the consumer's preferences. Assisting the consumer to make choices and advocate for himself or herself, assisting consumers to request reasonable accommodations and providing consumers with information about options are additional competencies derived from critical incidents.

Working with families. It is not uncommon for an individual's wishes to conflict with those of family members, and several incidents highlighted the importance of working with families throughout the employment process. Skills to involve families and include them as part of the employment team include addressing family concerns and keeping families informed of progress and issues.

Working with employers. The solution to incidents involving employer responses and concerns generated a series of skills related to working closely with employers, understanding the business culture, and offering useful information and consultation. Experienced staff learn to address employer concerns and perhaps to consult with the supervisor on employee supervision, job designs, and problem-solving.

Working with other professionals and agencies. The ability to work collaboratively with other professionals and team members can prevent or ameliorate incidents in which different agencies or different parts of the same agency have different agendas, procedures and priorities. Expert employment staff attend to the organizational and service system context, and find opportunities to educate other team members about the realities of the world of work. Additional skills developed from other incidents in this category include understanding the range of resources and services available in the community.

General Competencies

Sam, an individual with a severe disability who uses a wheelchair, was dismissed from his job as a greeter because, to cut costs, new management at the restaurant combined the job of greeter and utility person into one job. This new job included duties Sam was unable to perform. Sam had been in the job for over two years and had been a source of positive publicity for the restaurant through human-interest articles in the media and was well-liked by many of the restaurant's regular customers. The district office of the restaurant chain was aware of this but the new manager did not seem to care.

General competencies relate to the areas of consumer rights and several other general competencies involved in communication and problem solving. These competencies are listed in Table 3.

Consumer rights. This category includes knowledge of consumer rights and protective services, and skills related to advocating for the employee. Difficulties can arise through misinformation or through a lack of appreciation for the complexity of situations in which staff members both wish to engage in positive and mutually rewarding relationships with employers and also are responsible for protecting consumers' interests and rights.

General skills. Part of the solution to the above and other incidents involves the skills of creative problem solving, negotiation, communication, counseling and anticipating problems. Expert employment staff are aware of the need to take the initiative and learn how to deal with a new manager, to be willing and able to re-negotiate job tasks, and to be creative in approaches to problems. In the above incident, for example, there may be a way to help the new manager see the financial value of retaining an employee who is well-liked by customers, or to involve the district office manager in advocating for Sam.

Discussion

In this pilot study, critical incidents submitted and responded to by personnel experienced in community employment were used to generate a list of staff competencies for job development and job support. This process appears to hold promise as a new approach to developing inservice training topics for staff providing community employment services.

The competencies recommended by expert practitioners in response to critical incidents are surprisingly wide-ranging and complex. This underscores the high degree of professionalism and expertise required in the provision of community employment services, and thus the critical role of professional development in ensuring service quality.

The competencies included a number of specific job development and job support skill areas identified in previous research by Morgan, Ames, Loosli, Feng and Taylor (1995) and Shafer, Pardee and Stewart (1999), such as job matching, teaching social skills and analyzing job tasks. Competencies of a more global nature also identified in previous research included encouraging family supports, crisis intervention, encouraging employer support, and encouraging coworker support. Several topics identified in previous research -- managed care and other funding systems, developing individualized rehabilitation plans and understanding the impact of earnings on benefits and entitlements -- did not emerge in this analysis. However a wide range of other competencies were identified that point to the need for direct service employment staff training in new areas. These includede communication skills, consumer assistance outside of the workplace, creative problem-solving, collaboration across disciplines, consumer rights, negotiation and mediation.

The scope and breadth of competencies identified through the critical incident process underscores the fact that work competency is best viewed as a complex interaction of skills and knowledge in which identification of contextual factors is vital (Sandberg, 2000). Practitioners must supplement discrete skills such as task analysis and job development with competencies that tie these skills to the context in which community employment is embedded. And since skill and knowledge tend to be distributed across a work group (Torraco, 1999), teamwork and collaboration competencies are essential to a staff member's effective job performance.

Perhaps the most obvious difference between the findings of this study and other training needs assessments is the specificity of the list generated by the critical incident technique. For example, while Morgan, Ames, Loosli, Feng and Taylor (1995) identified "crisis intervention" as a training topic, the critical incident technique identified several specific competencies for preventing or resolving crises: Viewing behavior as a form of communication, discussing the meaning of behavior with consumers, assisting with alternative methods of communication and using behavior management programs. This greater level of detail, one of the benefits of an inductive approach to data analysis (Berg, 1998) can aid in the development of training modules targeted to specific staff development needs.

Because they are directly rooted in real-life incidents, the competencies developed through the critical incident method can be assumed to have a high degree of applicability to the practice of community rehabilitation. These competencies can be used as training module topic areas, or serve as the basis for a survey to identify a smaller subset of training needs. Moreover, the incident scenarios themselves can be used to enhance training curricula. For example, the RCEP-CRP in New England (RSA Region I) utilizes group discussion of critical incidents as an important component of seminars on Effective Job Development, Facilitating Natural Supports in the Workplace, Person-Centered Career Planning, and other topics. Finally, exploration of critical incidents in a staff member's own practice with a supervisor or mentor is an effective on-the-job training approach that complements and enriches traditional classroom-style training. As Parker, Webb and D'Souza (1995) noted, examining incidents and discussing the competencies associated with handling them assist staff to learn not just from experience but through experience.

It is important to note the limitations of this study. Agreement among multiple coders was employed to establish a degree of intersubjectivity, but decisions are made throughout the process of coding data and alternative lists of codes could have been generated from the same set of narratives. As an additional methodological safeguard, a member of the Mentor Network functioned as a "member check" (Berg, 1998) or "participant check" (Hagner & Helm, 1994). This third coder, analyzing the data from the perspective of a practitioner, independently arrived at a similar list of codes.

A second limitation concerns the dependence of the list of competencies on the scenarios presented to staff for their solution. Critical incident scenarios tend to have a problem focus, and may overemphasize the degree to which community employment support involves resolving negative situations. For example, it may be that the failure to include benefits planning as a competency relates to the fact that inadequate benefits planning seldom manifests itself in the form of a particular critical incident. More importantly, the obtained list of 19 critical scenarios may have captured only a limited subset of issues involved in community employment, resulting in an incomplete inventory of competencies.

Further studies involving additional incidents are recommended to reach a point of "saturation," where no new competencies emerge from new incidents. In inductive research, this saturation standard is generally more relevant than "response rate" as an indicator of sample size adequacy, because the goal is to fully understand a social process (in this case, the process of providing community employment services) rather than to estimate one measurement from another. Bradley (1992) noted that a full exploration of complex practices may require analyzing several hundred incidents. Data saturation was not reached in this study, indicating that there are probably more competencies to be added through analysis of additional incidents. In addition, future research should consider employing neutral individuals to verify coding categories as an additional safeguard against bias. Finally, field-based studies are recommended to examine the relationship between direct service staff competencies and consumer outcomes such as job retention and service satisfaction.

Despite its limitations, the critical incident approach was able to generate a diverse set of well-defined staff competencies that are grounded in actual practice as reported by individuals with substantial expertise. Thus, the critical incident method appears to be a promising approach to the development of relevant and effective training content and curricula for community employment program staff.

Table 1 Employment Process Competencies

Category              Competencies

Job Development       Help consumers identify and work towards jobs
                        that match their vocational interests as well
                        as their other strengths.
                      Know and educate consumers in appropriate
                        job-seeking behavior.
                      Provide job applicants with interview skills
                        training and interview preparation.
                      Encourage consumers to work with you on planning
                        interview strategies.
                      Attend job interviews with a consumer if possible
                        when there is any doubt whether the consumer
                        will make a positive impression.
                      Help consumers send thank-you notes after meeting
                        with an employer.

Job Analysis and      Carefully assess job and skill requirements and
Matching                job matching.
                      Determine employer dress, grooming and other
                        expectations.
                      Assess coworker social factors and make sure the
                        social climate is a good match for the
                        consumer.
                      Provide job seekers with comprehensive
                        information about job demands and review
                        strengths and weaknesses with consumers prior
                        to making a decision.
                      Identify any possible problem areas in advance of
                        the start of a job.
                      Make sure consumer safety is a top priority.
                      Analyze the specific discrepancies between job
                        requirements and consumer abilities when a job
                        is not going well.

Job Training and      Involve supervisors and coworkers in designing
Related Supports        training and supports.
                      Develop supportive relationships with co-workers.
                      Design job tasks or add accommodations if needed
                        to remediate a skill deficit or maximize
                        employee strengths.
                      Monitor training and keep in close contact with
                        the employer to spot potential problems.
                      Enlist supervisor's help in solving performance
                        problems.
                      Assist company personnel to have productive
                        discussions with consumers about job
                        performance.
                      Ensure that employee cues and prompts are as
                        natural and unobtrusive as possible.

Behavior and          View behavior as a form of communication and
Communication           discuss the meaning of behavior with consumers
                      Look at what behavior might be communicating, and
                        assist with alternative methods of
                        communication.
                      Know how to set up and use behavior management
                        programs such as reinforcement systems if
                        needed to increase positive behavior.
                      Use misbehavior as a clue to vocational
                        interests.
                      Know crisis prevention techniques and how to
                        de-escalate problem situations.
                      Know anger management strategies and sources of
                        assistance and referral.
                      Deal with anger immediately and work with
                        consumers to help manage their behavior.
                      Help consumers to meet their needs in socially
                        acceptable ways.
                      Counsel consumers regarding appropriate social
                        behavior in various situations.

Assistance Beyond     Help consumers explore alternative ways of
Work                    meeting an interest; if not with employment,
                        then with leisure or volunteer activities.
                      Know community recreational opportunities and
                        make suggestions.
                      Help consumers plan a daily and weekly schedule
                        that includes non-work activities.
                      Look at a consumer's complete schedule and
                        itinerary, including getting back and forth,
                        cashing paychecks, and so on.
                      Help supported employees make friends and
                        establishing community connections.
                      Explore transportation options and teach getting
                        to and from work prior to job start.

Ongoing               Assist the consumer to self-determine his or her
Career Planning         personal career path.
                      Use person-centered career planning and assist
                        consumers to have a long-term career
                        perspective and work towards their dreams.
                      Assess consumer job satisfaction regularly.
                      Assist dissatisfied consumers to brainstorm ways
                        to improve the job if possible or to find a
                        more satisfactory job.
                      When it is time to change jobs, assist consumers
                        to give notice and leave a job appropriately.
                        Discourage quitting before receiving a new job
                        offer
                      Assist employees to investigate the requirements
                        for other occupations they express interest
                        in.
                      Arrange for consumers to remain employed while
                        working towards a better job.
                      Look for clues as to consumer interests and
                        discuss them with the consumer.
Table 2 Stakeholder Interaction Competencies

Category              Competencies

Consumer              Assist consumers to advocate for themselves and
Relationships           negotiate with employers.
                      Assist consumers to understand the types of
                        requests they can make of the employer, and
                        how to make them.
                      Respond positively to consumer motivation.
                      Assist consumers to develop workplace
                        friendships.
                      Point out and advise, but leave decisions up to
                        the consumer.
                      Review and help consumers learn from negative
                        situations. Frame each experience as a
                        learning opportunity.
                      Guide consumers through the decision-making
                        process.
                      Facilitate direct employee-employer discussions
                        of issues.

Working with          Discuss the family's perceptions of the job and
Families                deal with any questions or concerns.
                      Keep in frequent contact with families and
                        residences, and keep family members informed.
                      Enlist the support of the family as a member of
                        the team.

Working with          Get to know businesses as fully as possible and
Employers               be available to them as a resource.
                      Listen to and address employer concerns.
                      Be aware of business goals and practices.
                      Provide training for employers on disability and
                        accommodations.
                      Support employers to develop their skills for
                        supporting a more diverse workforce.
                      Help managers be aware of consumer's value to the
                        company.
                      Help companies receive publicity when
                        appropriate.
                      Solicit support for the consumer from management
                        at all levels.
                      Reestablish relationships when a manager position
                        turns over.
                      Consult with employers on job redesign when an
                        employee is having difficulty.

Working with          Work collaboratively with other professionals
Other Professionals     involved in the consumer's life a part of a
and Agencies            team.
                      Identify mutual goals and plans.
                      Brainstorm problems with other members of an
                        interdisciplinary team.
                      Plan strategically, both short and long-term.
                      Be familiar with consumers' rights in relation to
                        services and agencies they are involved with.
                      Serve as a resource to other staff on vocational
                        issues.
                      Develop a working relationship with residential
                        support personnel prior to job placement.
                      Collaborate with residences to solve problems
                        that might interfere with work.
                      Facilitate collaboration and teamwork among
                        professionals and agencies.
                      Know the vocational implications of medical
                        information and medical services.
                      Be familiar with local social services and
                        agencies, such as emergency housing, and their
                        referral processes.
                      Have a working relationship with advocacy groups
                        in your community
                      Refer consumers for evaluations and consultation
                        when needed from other professionals.
                      Consult with other professionals when additional
                        expertise is needed.
Table 3 General Competencies

Category              Competencies

Consumer              Understand the Americans with Disabilities Act
Rights                  and other employee rights.
                      Assist employers to develop job accommodations.
                      Advocate for consumer employment rights.
                      Let employer know when his/her actions may be in
                        violation of statutes.

Other                 Creative problem-solving.

Competencies          Negotiation and mediation.
                      Anticipating trouble-spots and job retention
                        issues and developing strategies in advance.
                      Generating multiple approaches to a problem.
                      Communication and listening.
                      Counseling skills.

References

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Shafer, M., Pardee, R. & Stewart, M. (1999). An assessment of the training needs of rehabilitation and community mental health workers in a six-state region. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 23, 161-169.

Sandberg, J. (2000). Understanding human competence at work: An interpretive approach. Academy of Management Journal, 43 (1), 9-25.

Toracco, R. (1999). Integrating learning and working: A reconceptualization of the role of workplace learning. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10 (2), 249-270.

David Hagner, Ph.D., CRC, University of New Hampshire Institute on Disability, 7 Leavitt Lane, Suite 101, Durham, New Hampshire 03824-3522. Email: [e-mail]

Ann Noll
University of Florida

Lara Enein Donovan
Boston Children's Hospital