How collaboration and research can affect school counseling practices: the Minnesota story.

Collaboration among various professional groups to enhance student learning is a very useful strategy. This article describes how one state, Minnesota, over time (1960-1990), employed collaboration among schools, universities, professional organizations, and the State Department of Education to affect student counseling practices where needed. Efforts were directed to investigate and integrate all components of the school counseling profession by beginning with the possible impact of current practice, then researching various implementation models based on appropriate psychological theories, and finally changing counselor certification and graduate education to close the gap between relevant theory and professional practice. Such efforts have supportive implications for the national standards of the American School Counselor Association.

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The National Society for the Study of Education, in a recent Yearbook, addressed the use of collaboration among various groups to affect student academic achievement. The groups included schools, universities, communities, and professions (Brabeck, Walsh, & Latta, 2003). One of the authors reviewed the necessary components for successful collaboration and identified the following: connecting and communicating, cooperation, coordination, community building, and contracting (Lawson, 2003).

THE VALUE OF COLLABORATION

This notion of collaboration parallels the experience in Minnesota to affect school counseling practices during a 30-year period (1960-1990). It confirms the above paradigm for collaborative success. Sequential efforts began with State Department of Education personnel, who were instrumental in initiating a series of activities to relate theory and research to strengthening the profession of school counseling. Various authors have stressed the importance of a research-based practice as fundamental to all professions (Greenwood, 1966; Gross, 1964) including counseling (Hanna & Bemak, 1997; Lapan, 2005). Additionally, developmental theory, research, and evaluation are a continuing need for program development (Aubrey, 1982; Bauman et al., 2003; Gysbers, 2004). Using student development as a guide to teaching and learning really goes back to Dewey (1904). He noted that once educators know the nature of developmental growth (in K-12), they then can establish the conditions necessary to encourage developmental learning. Developmental growth or maturity (personal competence, ego development, motivation, independence, and psychological maturity), not grade point average, predicted critical indicators of adult success (e.g., occupational success, mental health, and adaptation and competence; Miller, 1981; Sprinthall, 1980). This research about the importance of psychological factors over school grades tends to support Dewey's developmental approach to education.

NATIONAL SUPPORT FOR GUIDANCE COUNSELING: A BACKGROUND

The greatest influence on school counseling in America occurred four decades ago with the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958 (U.S. Office of Education, 1964). Although the primary purpose was to improve academic instruction, federal funds also were available to provide relevant career guidance for students. State Departments of Education were responsible for distributing these funds to local schools with qualifying programs of guidance, counseling, and testing.

State guidance personnel were responsible for approving each local program. This included reviewing each school's application as well as making onsite visits. After hundreds of program reviews were made, the nagging question surfaced as to whether or not these program standards made any actual impact on students. The need for evaluation, although not in the federal regulations, was actually raised earlier by the U.S. Office of Education staff (Wellman & Twiford, 1961).

HIGH SCHOOL GUIDANCE IMPACT STUDY

To examine the question of evaluation, a state committee representing various educational groups was convened to explore the major aspects of a state study of guidance and counseling in Minnesota. The actual 2-year study was headed by Armis Tamminen from the University of Minnesota, Duluth, and was funded by the U.S. Office of Education (19651966). This large-scale intercorrelational study (more than 2,100 students) examined the relationship in 84 schools, if any, between 32 "guidance and counseling input variables" and 40 hoped-for "student outcome variables." Twenty-one "situational variables" also were examined such as size of senior class, percentage in college preparation courses, per-pupil expenditure, average MSAT scores, average salary of teachers, teacher-pupil ratio, parents' level of education, wage-earner's occupation, and family income.

Factor analysis revealed that general satisfaction with guidance (students, teachers, and administrators) was significantly related to a variety of input factors such as good counselor image and a well-established guidance program. The good counselor image indicated a situation in which the counselor is held in high esteem and is not only effective, but is an understanding, empathetic, and accepting person who spends time in in-depth counseling. Contributing to this factor were negative relationships such as a low level of guidance activity, problem-centered counseling, superficial contacts with the counselor, an emphasis upon nonguidance activities, a new program with minimal facilities, and discontented counselors. Also contributing to this outcome were situational factors such as large size (number of seniors, size of town, number of courses offered, etc.), academic atmosphere, culturally advantaged community, proximity to post-high school training, an advantaged family, and, negatively related, the low ability factor (negative loadings from average scholastic aptitude, average of father's education, and percentage of students taking college prep courses).

Counselors typically appeared to be most helpful to students in choosing courses, planning courses, changing subjects, and providing information about colleges, vocational schools, scholarships, and military training. This was a little short of actual career planning or counseling students about personal problems. The lack of helpfulness rated by graduates was significantly related to superficial contact with counselors and problem-centered counseling. It was negatively related to good counselor image and the low ability factor.

Vocational immaturity and underachievement showed a relationship to two guidance input factors: new guidance programs with an inexperienced counselor and inadequate facilities, and problem-centered counseling. Most situational factors were related to this outcome, including low ability, cultural and personal disadvantage, an anti-academic atmosphere, and small size. This means that in such schools, there is much poorer achievement related to ability and less likelihood that vocational maturity would occur. Good holding power of the school was significantly related to good counselor image and negatively related to the low ability factor and large size factor.

Regarding a high general and academic self-concept factor, the analysis showed small though significant relationships with problem-centered counseling, discontented counselors, and unimproved programs. More positive results were not too disappointing because self-concept is not likely to change without more counseling than was revealed in this study. Situational factors were not related to self-concept.

A main conclusion was that counselors need to consider spending more time with the larger student population to make any impact upon such psychological development as vocational maturity--probably through group processes. Seeing students individually for brief periods of time is not likely to have much developmental impact for very many students.

It was also obvious that guidance input variables were dependent upon contributions from situational variables for favorable relationships with guidance outcomes. This means that counselors need to consider that there is an interdependency factor at work. In the organization of a local guidance program, other contributors and detractors must be recognized as components of a larger system that impacts student development.

It was argued that counselors should consider involving more students through the use of groups. It was hoped that by extending guidance programs down to the elementary school level, the so-called "problem students" would be identified earlier and given the help they need (Tamminen & Miller, 1968).

NEXT STEPS

Following the above elementary guidance suggestion, it was necessary to explore a possible theoretical basis for programs at the elementary school level. An important effort was to contract with Armin Grams (1966) from the Merrill-Palmer Institute to examine the literature. He was to search for gaps, if any, where supplemental support might be needed at the elementary level to strengthen a competency-based model of learning. His conceptual model was used to formulate a set of guidelines for implementing a broad developmental role model for counselors in a group of demonstration schools (Miller, 1966).

At this time, searches for connections between child development and career development failed to show important relationships. Therefore, at the elementary level, Minnesota program models tended to stress psychological development arguably antecedent to, and supportive of; adolescence career development (Borow, 1964).

Elementary school counselor preparation programs also were needed. The University of Minnesota, Duluth, was encouraged to apply for an NDEA Institute. Moy Gum from that university, also was contracted to write a developmentally oriented counseling monograph that was used later as part of two elementary NDEA Institute grants (Gum, 1969).

DEMONSTRATION ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

Using federal funds, school districts were invited to participate in a 2-year demonstration study of whether or not counselors could be helpful at the elementary level. The counselors from 14 schools had been prepared at one of two developmentally oriented NDEA Institutes.

Extensive analysis of more than 8,000 counselor function logs was sampled during the 2-year period. It was revealed that by the second year, counselors were performing in a role that stressed developmental interventions more than remedial ones. Thirteen of the 16 hoped-for outcome variables were predictable through various combinations of how counselors spent time serving various functions. For example, teachers' perception of counselor helpfulness was predictable when counselors spent most of their time, with the teachers present, for the purpose of remediating a problem while facilitating the development of all children with the same function. Students' perception of counselor helpfulness was associated with counselors who served remedial and developmental purposes with pupils present. Academic self concept was predictable if counselors spent low time on individual and group counseling, performed a high number of functions, spent low time on consulting, and spent high time on placement functions. Favorable parental attitudes toward guidance were associated with counselors who spent high time on counseling, developmental functions, placement, and testing and low time per function. In the second year, school anxiety decreased and significant increases were found in pupil locus control, social acceptance of low-status children, and staff openness to others (Miller, Gum, & Bender, 1972).

MORE CONTROLLED ELEMENTARY STUDIES

Following the above pilot study of elementary school counseling programs, graduate students from the various universities cooperated with the State Department of Education and local districts to conduct 12 more controlled studies. The studies included preschool and elementary students, teachers, parents, and counselors. The impact of these efforts included such aspects as self-concept, peer relations, classroom communication, affective education, consultation, parent education, and local program evaluation (Miller, 1972).

To clarify how elementary principals, teachers, and parents felt about elementary school counselor functions, a coalition of representatives from various state organizations (elementary principals, parent-teacher associations, and school counselors) surveyed a sample of schools. Results showed strong support for developmentally oriented functions such as healthy psychological development, positive interpersonal relationships, listening to others, expressing one's feelings, making friends, decision-making, value judgments, and peer counseling and tutoring. Career guidance for children was not as well rated as the above functions (Miller, 1989). It appears that state and national efforts in this aspect of guidance resulted in various professional groups taking a stand supporting elementary school counseling: the Minnesota PTA, 1968; National Elementary School Principals, 1978; and the Minnesota Board of Education, 1981.

HIGH SCHOOLS LOOK AT DEVELOPMENTAL GUIDANCE

Another outgrowth of the Tamminen and Miller high school study was to find ways that secondary school counselors might work more with the general school population. The success of the elementary school counselors with developmental interventions in the classroom inspired similar classroom interventions at the high school level. The high school classroom interventions used were based on a variety of cognitive and maturational developmental theories (Dewey, 1909, 1938; Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972; Loevinger, 1976; Piaget, 1948; Super, 1957). Graduate students and local staffs conducted most of the studies. The instructional use of these theories in guidance may be found in Miller (1976, 1977, 1981). Similar to the elementary school interventions, most of the high school interventions were conducted in classrooms or other groups, and they were structured and presented in a systematic way over time. Variables examined, and found helpful by counselors, included the following: psychological maturity, psychological skills, moral reasoning, ego development, sexual role development, and occupational value clarification (Miller, 1976).

STATEWIDE CONFERENCE

The Minnesota Personnel and Guidance Association organized its 1977 conference around these theories and their application in guidance programs. Well-known leaders such as Jane Loevinger, Lawrence Kohlberg, Jean Pierre Jordaan, and William Perry were invited to present. Robert Carkhuff also was invited to review his "teaching as the preferred model of helping," because some of the high school +interventions used the teaching of psychological skills as one strategy for growth. Utilizing theories from the above writers, about a dozen other presentations included successful interventions based on various aspects of developmental growth.

A review of the cognitive-developmental interventions reveals that they were based on a set of assumptions:

* Human development can be explained in terms of stages of growth, and each stage contains its own unique characteristics that are qualitatively different.

* Each stage contains and builds on those preceding it and represents progressively more complex structures.

* Complexity of structure provides a basis for an adaptive personal framework.

* Even though the structures are considered quite stable and irreversible, growth does occur over time and can be influenced with appropriate psychological interventions. (Miller, 1977, p. 3)

State and national efforts continued to identify the need for meeting the developmental needs of students at all levels. Counselors nationally began to recognize Minnesota's efforts. For example, the officers of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) invited this author to rewrite a variety of counselor role statements into a single document and with a developmental focus (ASCA, 1981).

COUNSELOR EDUCATION STUDIED

To illustrate collaboration in another domain, the state is responsible for certifying school personnel employed to work in public schools, and the state guidance staffs participate by approving universities that want to prepare graduate students for counselor certification. To determine how the eight state counselor preparation programs compared with the guidelines of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (1964), the state of Minnesota contracted two counselor educators. They compiled a report based on a study of these programs using the above national guidelines adapted to state certification requirements. Basic information was collected by a questionnaire and on-site team interviews. Each university program received an individual report on its strengths and the areas needing improvement (Hogan & Markwardt, 1969). At that time, counselor educators were becoming more active and formed their own professional organization. They became the Minnesota Association for Counselor Education and Supervision.

CLOSING THE GAP

Even though all of the above worthwhile activities and events occurred in school counseling research, there still seemed to be a gap between counselor education and actual counselor practice. The relationship among counselor education, certification, and role implementation did not seem to integrate well in practice. A 2-year comprehensive collaborative study was organized and supported by federal funds. Counselor educators from each of four universities were contracted to serve as part-time consultants. They assisted their recent graduates through consulting and demonstrating how to implement in practice the role espoused by each program. A sample of more than 10,000 counselor functions was collected and analyzed. Counselor educators identified their specific guidance program variables, counseling tapes were analyzed, student levels of career planning were examined, and, finally, the facilitating strategies used by the consultants were recorded.

According to journal notes, one consultant achieved the most outcomes with high school counselors utilizing the following strategies: modeling the counselor's role in psychological education in the classroom, modeling the role in group counseling, conducting staff meetings, informally in faculty lounges, and using community resources. Less time was spent on strengthening counseling skills. Another consultant, working with elementary school counselors, was successful with three out of five outcome variables using the following strategies: observing counselors in the classroom conducting psychological education, followed by making suggestions and/or modeling. Consultation was provided in such areas as staff communication problems, school guidance programs, and counselor involvement in other professional activities. In spite of the small number of subjects, it was felt that the study was able to demonstrate the positive effects of consultation in assisting recently trained counselors with their role (Miller & Boiler, 1975).

COUNSELOR CERTIFICATION UPDATED

Utilizing the results of all of the above research projects in elementary and secondary counseling, several committees were formed to update Minnesota's certification standards for counselors. For discussion purposes, consultants were invited to prepare background papers. The presenters included Norm Sprinthall, Sunny Hansen, Warren Shaffer, DeWayne Kurpius, Armin Tamminen, Moy Gum, Marlowe Smaby, Calvin Stoudt, and Arland Benson. Implementation guidelines also were developed later. The new rules for licensure covered six domains of function: counseling, consultation, developmental and career guidance, evaluation and assessment, guidance program management, and administrative services (Miller, 1979). After involvement by additional professional groups at public hearings, the new elementary and secondary counselor standards were adopted in 1982.

Several studies were conducted to see how secondary counselors viewed the new proposals for practice. Counselors believed that counseling and consulting were both important and needed to be done fairly often. Developmental/career guidance and evaluation were next in importance but done less often. However, counselors felt they needed more preparation in developmental interventions and consultation (Skovholt, Tennyson, Miller, & Williams, 1990).

Using the same counselor functions, counselors in various types of high schools were surveyed to determine how they perceived functions described in the new Minnesota license. Senior high counselors and smaller junior-senior high (7-12) counselors gave more emphasis to educational and vocational guidance. Junior-senior high schools seemed less involved with consultation activities than separate junior highs and senior high schools. Junior high school counselors were more involved with developmental guidance activities. All counselors seemed to agree that developmental guidance was important. One suggestion was that counselor education should do more to prepare counselors for developmental psychology by using group processes (Tennyson, Miller, Skovholt, & Williams, 1989a, 1989b).

Using the above counselor-functions questionnaire, Tennyson, Smaby, and Strowig (1990) surveyed 94% of Minnesota's counselor educators. Fifty-eight percent had been school counselors. The respondents strongly agreed on counselors performing such functions as group/classroom interventions concerned with self-awareness, decision-making, interpersonal competence, and values development. They also agreed on using the function of consultation, especially when remedial interventions were needed. However, more than 20% of the functions did not receive adequate preparation ratings, suggesting that counselor educators need to give more attention to the interface of their preparation and counselor role expectations. Compared to the earlier study (Miller & Boiler, 1975), it was concluded that Minnesota counselor educators had become more consistent in the way they viewed the role and preparation of school counselors.

To assist counselors with implementing the new standards, many resource materials were developed, published, and distributed. Most were developed under contract with counselors and/or counselor educators with interest in specific areas. To show other ripple effects of all the above activities regarding the counselor role in the schools, the Minnesota Association for Counseling and Development (1990) devoted a special journal issue to "School Counseling/Development and Preventive Guidance."

DISCUSSION

The above collaborative efforts were the result of state supervisors of guidance and counseling and the various counselors and counselor educators working together to build a sounder professional base for school counseling. These like-minded individuals, through research, publications, workshops, committees, and conferences, interacted over time to identify appropriate developmental theories and implementation models at both elementary and secondary levels. These efforts led to updating counselor licenses and then bringing counselor educators together to identify necessary changes in their preparation programs. However, these activities would not have been possible without local school cooperation, federal funding, and state education administrative support. Multiple processes and strategies were utilized in Minnesota over the years to facilitate an examination of the status quo and promote change, where needed, in school counseling as a profession. This approach was guided within a step-by-step framework to bring together, in an integrated fashion, the various components of a unified professional system (Ryan, 1969). This included appropriate psychological theory, graduate education based on research-based skills and knowledge, and role model implementation in the schools.

To this end, not only has one state benefited, but this collaborative effort can serve as a basic paradigm for other states looking for strategies to improve guidance and counseling programs in their state. Without a doubt, the theories and research involved in many of these projects make a substantial contribution to the ASCA National Model[R] (2003) for school counseling programs. However, the local counselor's role is subject to many influences. To preserve the integrity of a professional role, the ongoing challenge to counselors is to resist trivial assignments and to concentrate on the appropriate integration of research-based knowledge with practice.

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Dr. G. Dean Miller is a former state guidance consultant and director of the Minnesota Career Information System, Minnesota Department of Education, St. Paul. E-mail: [e-mail]