High potency and other alcoholic beverage consumption among adolescents.Abstract This study examined the prevalence of high potency potency /po·ten·cy/ (po´ten-se) 1. the ability of the male to perform coitus. 2. the relationship between the therapeutic effect of a drug and the dose necessary to achieve that effect. 3. (liquor liquor /li·quor/ (lik´er) (li´kwor) pl. liquors, liquo´res [L.] 1. a liquid, especially an aqueous solution containing a medicinal substance. 2. , malt liquor, fortified wine for·ti·fied wine n. Wine, such as sherry, to which alcohol, usually in the form of grape brandy, has been added. fortified wine Noun ) and other alcoholic beverage alcoholic beverage Any fermented liquor, such as wine, beer, or distilled liquor, that contains ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, as an intoxicating agent. When an alcoholic beverage is ingested, the alcohol is rapidly absorbed in the stomach and intestines because it does not consumption (beer, wine/wine coolers) among adolescents, the impact of gender and ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , and the risk and protective factors that predicted consumption. A confidential survey revealed that, among eighth grade students, wine/wine coolers were the most popular alcoholic beverages
INTRODUCTION High potency beverages have either higher than typical alcohol content (e.g., high proof liquor) or are sold in larger than average serving sizes (e.g., 40 ounce ounce, in zoology ounce, in zoology: see leopard. ounce, unit of measurement ounce: see English units of measurement. malt liquor) and thus, have a higher than typical potential for abuse. Wine coolers, high proof liquor, malt liquor, and fortified wines have become increasingly popular with adolescents (Boys, Marsden, Stillwell, Hutchings, Griffiths & Farrell, 2003; McBride, Midford, Farringdon, & Phillips, 2000), and in recent years, the Years, The the seven decades of Eleanor Pargiter’s life. [Br. Lit.: Benét, 1109] See : Time alcohol industry has intensified in·ten·si·fy v. in·ten·si·fied, in·ten·si·fy·ing, in·ten·si·fies v.tr. 1. To make intense or more intense: the development and marketing of these types of drinks to the youth market (Center on Alcohol Monitoring and Youth, 2002; Hughes, MacKintosh, Hastings, Wheeler, Watson, & Inglis, 1997; Jackson Jackson. 1 City (1990 pop. 37,446), seat of Jackson co., S Mich., on the Grand River; inc. 1857. It is an industrial and commercial center in a farm region. , Hastings, Wheeler, Eadie, & MacKintosh, 2000; Martin et al., 2002; McKeganey, Forsyth, Barnard Bar·nard , Christiaan Neethling 1923-2001. South African surgeon who performed the first human heart transplant (1967). , & Hay, 1996). Only wine advertisements targeted adults more than youth (Garfield, Chung, & Rathouz, 2003). For example, according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth The Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth (CAMY) is a research and advocacy organization, based in Washington, DC, which monitors and reports on youth exposure to alcohol advertising. at Georgetown University Georgetown University, in the Georgetown section of Washington, D.C.; Jesuit; coeducational; founded 1789 by John Carroll, chartered 1815, inc. 1844. Its law and medical schools are noteworthy, and its archives are especially rich in letters and manuscripts by and , 45 percent more beer and 27 percent more distilled spirits advertisements targeted youth than adults in 2001. Although the exact amounts can vary, the Indiana Prevention Resource Center (Bailey, 1998) reports that the percent alcohol by volume is 4-4.5 percent for beer, 5-8 percent for wine coolers (specialty wine coolers can be up to 20%), and 8-12 percent for wine. Malt liquors are as high as 8 percent, fortified wines are almost 20 percent, and high proof liquors can be over 75 percent alcohol by volume. The fact that beer and wine coolers are both often sold in 12 ounce bottles, for example, can create an erroneous erroneous adj. 1) in error, wrong. 2) not according to established law, particularly in a legal decision or court ruling. perception that the two drinks are equivalent, while in fact a 12 ounce wine cooler is one-and-a-half times more potent than a 12 ounce beer. A 40-ounce bottle of malt liquor, as it is often sold and consumed con·sume v. con·sumed, con·sum·ing, con·sumes v.tr. 1. To take in as food; eat or drink up. See Synonyms at eat. 2. a. , has the equivalent amount of alcohol of approximately six beers. Given this large range of alcohol content and serving sizes, it is critically important that researchers carefully define and measure high potency beverages. Furthermore, it is important that researchers examine individual beverage types separately, as the patterns of consumption are likely to vary widely, as are the consequences of their use. Little research has been conducted in the area of high potency alcohol consumption by adolescents. However, one study (McBride et al., 2000) found that wine and regular beer were preferred among a 13-year-old sample when initially surveyed, but that when surveyed a second time later in the school year, the preference for spirits and alcoholic alcoholic /al·co·hol·ic/ (al?kah-hol´ik) 1. pertaining to or containing alcohol. 2. a person suffering from alcoholism. al·co·hol·ic adj. 1. sodas SODAS - [D.L. Parnas & J.A. Darringer. Proc FJCC 31:449-474, AFIPS (Fall 1967)]. had increased. A qualitative analysis Qualitative Analysis Securities analysis that uses subjective judgment based on nonquantifiable information, such as management expertise, industry cycles, strength of research and development, and labor relations. by Hughes and colleagues (1997) found that most adolescents were acquainted with the so-called designer drinks (defined by the researchers as a range of fortified wines including MD 20/20 and white ciders such as White Lightning white lightning n. Chiefly Southern U.S. See moonshine. ). Fourteen and fifteen year old participants reported consuming almost anything that was "relatively strong, inexpensive, and pleasant tasting" (all characteristics of designer drinks). In contrast, 16- to 17-year-olds tried to appear mature and experienced with alcohol, and opted for spirits and bottled beers. A quantitative analysis Quantitative Analysis A security analysis that uses financial information derived from company annual reports and income statements to evaluate an investment decision. Notes: of 12- to 17-year-olds (Hughes et al., 1997) indicated that designer drinks peaked in popularity between 13 and 16 years of age. The results suggested that consumption of designer drinks was related to higher rates of alcohol consumption and greater loss of control. Part of the reason for over-consumption appears to be that the alcohol content of many alcoholic beverages, especially high potency beverages, is commonly estimated incorrectly (Giacopassi & Stein Stein , William Howard 1911-1980. American biochemist. He shared a 1972 Nobel Prize for pioneering studies of ribonuclease. , 1991; Kaskutas & Graves, 2000; Lemmens, 1994; Martin, Liepman, Nirenberg, & Young, 1991). For example, Martin and colleagues (1991) found that accuracy rates for alcohol content among a college students were lowest for malt beverages Malt beverage is an American term for both alcoholic and non-alcoholic fermented beverages, in which the primary ingredient is barley, which has been allowed to sprout ("malt") slightly before it is processed. (17.4%), followed by fortified wines (27.9%), wines (36.0%), and distilled spirits (40.7%). Giacopassi and Stein (1991) found that college participants overestimated the strength of the majority of alcoholic beverages they were questioned about, yet underestimated the strength of wine coolers. There also appear to be differences in the perceived consequences associated with the use of various types of alcoholic beverages. Klein and Pittman (1990), for example, found that most adult drinkers perceived beer, distilled spirits, wine, and wine coolers to be equally harmful. Those who did not, however, perceived beer and/or distilled spirits to be most associated with negative consequences. Wine and wine coolers, despite being relatively high in alcohol content, were perceived as being less harmful. Due to these perceptions, people may be more likely to consume wine and wine coolers, and less likely to adequately consider their potential for negative consequences. Although the above studies involved adult participants, it could be argued that adolescents would be even less accurate in estimating alcohol content and in judging potential negative consequences of alcohol use. Lacking in research literature to date is an examination of beverage-specific consumption rates and patterns of use for high potency and other alcoholic beverages. Many researchers lump beverages together, especially high potency beverages, when it is likely that there are differences between them. There were two purposes in the present study. The first was to examine the prevalence of adolescent ad·o·les·cent adj. Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence. n. A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. lifetime and current consumption of a number of specific alcoholic beverages (i.e., beer, wine/wine coolers, liquor, malt liquor, and fortified wine), and to investigate the impact of gender and ethnicity on consumption. The second was to determine the risk and protective factors that were predictive of current use of individual alcoholic beverages. METHOD Participants The participants were 454 8th grade students from an inner-city (n = 183), suburban (n = 110), and rural (n = 161) middle schools in northeast Florida. Recruitment took place in the fall of 2001. The sample was 62% female, and the average age was 13.3 years (SD = .51). The majority were White (51%), followed by Black (36%), and other ethnicities (13%). Over half (56%) lived with both parents, 32% lived with just their mother, and the remainder lived with just their father (7%) or with someone else (5%). More than one-third (38%) had a close family member with alcohol or drug problem, and almost one-third (29%) were in the free or reduced lunch program at their school, indicating that their families were economically disadvantaged This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details. This article has been tagged since September 2007. . Materials The Youth Alcohol & Health Survey (YAHS YAHS Yanco Agricultural High School (Yanco, NSW, Australia) ; Werch, 2000) was used to collect data on alcohol and drug use, and alcohol use risk and protective factors. The questionnaire takes approximately 25 minutes to complete. It has undergone extensive pilot testing, resulting in a psychometrically sound and highly comprehensible com·pre·hen·si·ble adj. Readily comprehended or understood; intelligible. [Latin compreh instrument for research with adolescents. The YAHS, along with standardized standardized pertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures. standardized morbidity rate see morbidity rate. standardized mortality rate see mortality rate. procedures for implementation, have been employed in previous preventive preventive /pre·ven·tive/ (pre-vent´iv) prophylactic. pre·ven·tive or pre·ven·ta·tive adj. Preventing or slowing the course of an illness or disease; prophylactic. n. intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. trials. An alcohol "dip stick" saliva saliva Thick, colourless fluid constantly present in the mouth, composed of water, mucus, proteins, mineral salts, and amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starches. One to two litres are produced daily by the salivary glands. pipeline procedure (Alco Screen, Chematics, Inc.) was also used to increase the validity of responses. Consumption measures used in the present analyses included lifetime use of specific alcoholic beverages and drugs; 30-day frequency and quantity of alcohol use; 30-day frequency of drug use; and alcohol use risk and protective factors. The measures of lifetime use asked: "Have you ever done any of the following?" (Yes or no). The measures of alcohol and drug frequency asked: "During the past 30 days, how many days did you use" each substance. There were seven response options, from 0 days to all 30 days. The measure of alcohol quantity asked: "During the past 30 days, how much did you usually drink at one time?" There were six response options, from "I did not drink" to "5 or more drinks." The risk and protective factors that were measured reflect constructs from a number of well-known psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. theories, including Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. (Bandura ban`dur´a n. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. , 1986), Health Belief Model (Becker, 1974), Behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. Self-Control Theory (Kanfer, 1975), Social Bonding Theory (Hirschi, 1969), and Theory of Planned Behavior In psychology, the theory of planned behavior is a theory about the link between attitudes and behavior. It was proposed by Icek Ajzen (his last name is sometimes spelled "Aizen") as an extension of the theory of reasoned action. It is one of the most predictive persuasion theories. (Ajzen, 1991). Measures of alcohol use risk factors included intention to drink, smoke, and use marijuana marijuana or marihuana, drug obtained from the flowering tops, stems, and leaves of the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa (see hemp) or C. indica; the latter species can withstand colder climates. , willingness to drink, positive outcome expectancy A mere hope, based upon no direct provision, promise, or trust. An expectancy is the possibility of receiving a thing, rather than having a vested interest in it. The term has been applied to situations where an individual hopes and expects to receive something, generally beliefs (pros) about alcohol use, perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use, influenceability, attitudes related to alcohol use, peer and parental alcohol norms. Intention to use alcohol and drugs were measured by three questions asking "Do you plan to drink alcohol/smoke cigarettes/ use marijuana in the next 6 months?" One item measured willingness, and asked: "How willing are you to drink alcohol in the next 6 months?" Expectancy beliefs about the positive outcomes of alcohol use were measured by 11 items from the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (Brown, Christiansen & Goldman, 1987), alpha = .88. The measure of perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use asked: "How many of your friends drink alcohol?" Three items measured influenceability to alcohol use offers and alcohol-related media messages (alpha = .79). For example, one item read: "If someone gave me alcohol, I would drink it." Four items comprised an attitude measure based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (alpha = .89). The items asked participants to respond to the following statement: "For me, drinking alcohol in the next month would be ...". Response options were on 4-point scales from "very healthy" to "very unhealthy," "very smart" to "very dumb DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND. A man born deaf, dumb, and blind, is considered an idiot. (q.v.) 1 Bl. Com. 304; F. N. B. 233; 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 2111. DUMB. One who cannot speak; a person who is mute. See Deaf and dumb, Deaf, dumb, and blind; Mute, standing mute. ," "very good" to "very bad," and "very important" to "very unimportant un·im·por·tant adj. Not important; petty. un  im·por tance n. ." Three items
measured peer norms, and what friends and most young people think about
drinking (alpha = .80). For example, one item read: "My friends
think that it's okay for me to drink alcohol." Parental norms
were measured with two items, and were based on the Theory of Planned
Behavior (alpha of .84). One item asked "How would your parents
feel if they found out you drank alcohol?" and the other asked
participants to respond to the statement: "My parents think
it's okay for me to drink alcohol."
Measures of alcohol use protective factors included willingness to avoid alcohol, negative outcome expectancy belief (cons) about alcohol use, resistance self-efficacy, self-control practices to avoid alcohol use, perceived susceptibility susceptibility the state of being susceptible. Refers usually to infectious disease but may be to physical factors such as wetting or to psychological factors such as harassment. to alcohol-related health consequences, parental monitoring, parent child communication, parent-child relationship, parent-child alcohol communication, parent bonding, school bonding, and value incompatibility The inability of a Husband and Wife to cohabit in a marital relationship. incompatibility n. the state of a marriage in which the spouses no longer have the mutual desire to live together and/or stay married, and is thus a ground for divorce with alcohol use. The willingness to avoid measure asked "How willing are you to from drinking alcohol during the next 6 months?" Expectancy beliefs about the negative consequences of alcohol use were measured by 11 items developed for the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire (Brown et al., 1987). The alpha coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int) 1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. of these items was .88. The three self-efficacy items represent various situations in which adolescents might be offered alcohol. They were developed in previous research (Ellickson & Hays Hays, city (1990 pop. 17,767), seat of Ellis co., W central Kans.; inc. 1885. It is a rail, trade, and medical center in a grain, cattle, and oil area. Manufactures include electronic equipment, plastics, feeds, medical supplies, aircraft, and motorcycles. , 1991). These items, which had an alpha coefficient of .86, read: "How sure are you that you can stay away from using alcohol, if asked to use it ... By friends?, At a party?, On a date?" Self-control was measured from one item with 13 responses, used in previous research concerning behavioral and cognitive practices for avoiding alcohol (Werch & Gorman, 1986). This item read: "Have you used any of the following to help you stay away from alcohol during the last year?" and had an alpha coefficient of .88. The measure of perceived susceptibility was adapted from previous research examining psychosocial factors in cigarette use (Kviz, Crittenden, Belzer, & Warnecke, 1991). This item asked: "If you drank alcohol, would you have health problems?" Three items measured youths' perceptions of the frequency with which their parents engaged in certain behaviors within the last 30 days, with parental monitoring measuring knowing who their kids were with, and where they went out (alpha = .81), parent-child communication measuring spending time "Spending Time" is the first single released by Christian artist Stellar Kart. The lyrics describe the band members desire to spend "more time with God". "Sometimes it’s a real struggle to spend time with God. talking, and sharing ideas with the child (alpha =. 81), and parent-child relationship measuring how much parents praised and hugged their children (alpha = .75). In addition, two items measured the frequency of parent alcohol communication with the child during the last 30 days regarding avoiding alcohol, and disapproval of their adolescent drinking alcohol (alpha = .88). Two items each measured parent and school bonding. Alpha coefficients for these measures were .77 and .86, respectively. Parent bonding items were worded: "My parents/guardians support me to be a success," and "My parents/guardians are people I can count on to help me." School bonding items were worded similarly, but with teachers substituted for parents/guardians. The measures of value incompatibility were "Will drinking alcohol get in the way of reaching your goals or dreams?" and "Drinking alcohol fits with the type of life I want to live." Finally, various sociodemographic factors were measured. These were: ethnicity, gender, age, participation in a free/reduced lunch program, living situation (who the adolescent lived with), history of alcohol or drug problems, and father, mother and siblings siblings npl (formal) → frères et sœurs mpl (de mêmes parents) drinking habits. Design and Procedure The results presented here are from the baseline survey of a randomized controlled trial A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a scientific procedure most commonly used in testing medicines or medical procedures. RCTs are considered the most reliable form of scientific evidence because it eliminates all forms of spurious causality. previously reported by Werch, Moore, DiClemente, Owen, Jobli, and Bledsoe (2003). In this trial, students were recruited to take part in an alcohol and drug use prevention research project addressing sports and exercise, sleep, and eating habits. Parental consent Parental consent laws (also known as parental involvement or parental notification laws) in some countries require that one or more parents consent to or be notified before their minor child can legally engage in certain activities. and student assent An intentional approval of known facts that are offered by another for acceptance; agreement; consent. Express assent is manifest confirmation of a position for approval. were obtained prior to participation. Trained research staff conducted each data collection session, following a standardized protocol, with participants completing the surveys at their schools. It was emphasized that the project was voluntary and that all results would be kept confidential. Students were assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. code numbers and names were not included on any of the materials, and only the research staff had access to completed surveys. Students were given nominal incentives for participating in the study. The university's institutional review board approved the research protocol prior to implementation. RESULTS The first analysis examined lifetime use of specific alcoholic beverages by gender and ethnicity. Table 1 shows that beer and wine/ wine coolers were the beverages of choice, with 33.7% and 40.4% use across the sample, respectively. Ever use of liquor was the next highest (24.2%), followed by malt liquor (11.0%) and fortified wine (8.4%). The only significant gender difference was found for lifetime malt liquor use, [c.sup.2] (1) = 6.20, p = .01. A higher percentage of males (15.7%) reported drinking malt liquor than females (8.2%). There were also significant differences by ethnicity for lifetime use of wine/wine coolers, [c.sup.2] (2) = 9.63, p < .01, liquor, [c.sup.2] (2) = 27.11, p < .001, malt liquor, [c.sup.2] (2) = 9.74, p < .01, and fortified wine, [c.sup.2] (2) = 9.34, p < .01. For all beverages, other ethnicities (Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans, Mixed, and "other"), who were combined due to small numbers of participants within each category, had the highest percentages of use, followed by White and then Black participants. Greater proportions of Whites than Blacks drank wine/ wine coolers (40.2% vs. 30.5%) and liquor (30.0% vs. 10.9%). Greater proportions of Blacks (11.5%) than Whites (7.8%) drank malt liquor, while the two groups had similar proportions of fortified wine use (6.7% vs. 7.0%). A second analysis examined mean current (30-day) frequency and quantity of consumption of specific alcoholic beverages by gender and ethnicity. Table 2 indicates that, overall, wine/wine coolers were consumed with the highest frequency (M = 1.23, SD = .76) and in the greatest quantity (M = 1.24, SD = .73). Beer (M = 1.16, SD = .62) and liquor (M = 1.17, SD = .68) were consumed with the next highest frequency, while quantity levels were similar for all four other beverages (i.e., Ms = 1.16-1.19, SDs = .68-.75). Independent samples t-tests indicated that there were no significant gender differences in frequency or quantity measures, but a series of ANOVAs revealed significant differences by ethnicity for the 30-day frequency measures of beer, F(2) = 3.02,p < .001 and liquor, F(2) = 3.54, p = .03. Post-hoc tests revealed that White (M = 1.22, SD = .73) and "other" (M = 1.32, SD = .88) participants had significantly greater frequency of beer consumption than Black (M = 1.01, SD = .11) participants did (p's = .002), and White (M = 1.24, SD = .84) participants had significantly greater frequency of liquor (p = .03) consumption than Blacks did (M = 1.06, SD = .36). There were also significant differences by ethnicity for the 30-day quantity measures of beer, F(2) = 3.79, p = .02, wine/wine coolers, F(2) = 4.08, p = .02), and liquor, F(2) = 3.93, p = .02 use. Post-hoc tests indicated that Whites consumed significantly higher quantity of beer (M = 1.25, SD = .88; p = .02) and liquor (M = 1.27, SD = .93;p = .02) than Blacks did (Ms = 1.05 & 1.06, SDs = .42 & .34), and "others" (M = 1.41, SD = .85) had significantly higher quantity of wine/wine cooler consumption than Blacks (M = 1.12, SD = .42;p < .02). A final analysis involved a series of stepwise stepwise incremental; additional information is added at each step. stepwise multiple regression used when a large number of possible explanatory variables are available and there is difficulty interpreting the partial regression discriminant dis·crim·i·nant n. An expression used to distinguish or separate other expressions in a quantity or equation. analyses, and was conducted to determine predictions of current use of each of the five beverages examined above. Several theoretically-based risk (n=10) and protective (n=12) factors were used as predictors. Table 3 presents the standardized function coefficients and correlation coefficients Correlation Coefficient A measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated. The correlation coefficient is calculated as: of risk and protective factors by beverage type. There was one significant canonical The standard or authoritative method. The term comes from "canon," which is the law or rules of the church. See canonical name and canonical synthesis. canonical - (Historically, "according to religious law") 1. n. Statistics A function of a set of variables used to classify an object or event. generated for each beverage: L = .580, [c.sup.2] (6, N = 407) = 218.65,p < .001 for beer; L = .663, [c.sup.2] (5, N = 407) = 165.27,p < .001 for wine/wine coolers; L= .552, [c.sup.2] (5, N = 407) = 239.15, p < .001 for liquor; L = .694, [c.sup.2] (4, N = 407) = 147.45, p < .001 for malt liquor; and L = .598, [c.sup.2] (5, N = 407) = 206.68, p < .001 for fortified wine. The canonical correlations In statistics, canonical correlation analysis, introduced by Harold Hotelling, is a way of making sense of cross-covariance matrices. Definition Given two column vectors  and , as well as the
percentages of variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial.In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality explained for each beverage, were: .67 (45%) for liquor, .65 (42%) for beer, .63 (40%) for fortified wine, .58 (34%) for wine/wine coolers, and .55 (30%) for malt liquor. The discriminant analyses were supported by confirmatory logistic regression In statistics, logistic regression is a regression model for binomially distributed response/dependent variables. It is useful for modeling the probability of an event occurring as a function of other factors. analyses, which produced similar results for each beverage type. Based on standardized discriminating dis·crim·i·nat·ing adj. 1. a. Able to recognize or draw fine distinctions; perceptive. b. Showing careful judgment or fine taste: function coefficients, the most important variables entered into the function for each beverage (using a cut-off cut-off Anesthesiology The point at which elongation of the carbon chain of the 1-alkanol family of anesthetics results in a precipitous drop in the anesthetic potential of these agents–eg, at > 12 carbons in length, there is little anesthetic activity, of .30), were: for beer, attitudes (.36) and intention to smoke (.32); for wine/wine coolers, perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use (.34) and attitudes (-.34); for liquor, intention to drink (.34), attitudes (.34), and intention to smoke (.30); for malt liquor, intention to smoke (.54) and perceived susceptibility to alcohol (-.30); and for fortified wine, willingness to drink (.35), perceived susceptibility to alcohol (-.35), and intention to smoke (.32). The most important variables entered into the function for each beverage, based on correlation coefficients (cut-off set at .50), were: for beer, attitudes (.74), intention to drink (.72), willingness to drink (.72), influenceability (.60), intention to smoke (.57), value incompatibility with alcohol (-.53), willingness to avoid alcohol (-.52), and perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use (-.51); for wine/wine coolers, attitudes (-.76), intention to drink (-.76), perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use (.73), influenceability (-.68), perceived susceptibility to alcohol (.65), self-efficacy (.63), peer norms for alcohol (-.62), and willingness to drink (-.58), positive expectancy beliefs (pro) (.56); for liquor, intention to drink (.78), willingness to drink (.70), attitudes (.69), intention to smoke (.59), influenceability (.59), intention to use marijuana (.55), perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use (-.53), and willingness to avoid alcohol (-.51); for malt liquor, intention to smoke (.78), intention to drink (.74), perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use (-.71), perceived susceptibility to alcohol (-.57), influenceability (.56), peer norms for alcohol (.54), self-efficacy (-.54), willingness to drink (.53), and attitudes (.53); for fortified wine, willingness to drink (.75), attitudes (.73), influenceability (.70), perceived susceptibility to alcohol (-.66), intentions to drink (.65), intentions to smoke (.54), peer norms for alcohol (.52), perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use (-.51), self-efficacy (-.51), and willingness to avoid alcohol (-.50). DISCUSSION Wine/wine coolers, and to a lesser extent beer and liquor, were the beverages of choice overall among participants in this study. These beverages had the highest levels of lifetime consumption, as well as being among those beverages with the highest current frequency and quantity of consumption. Malt liquor and fortified wine were consumed by a smaller proportion of youth in their lifetime overall, although the current quantity of use was similar to beer and liquor. The reason for the high frequency and quantity of consumption of wine/wine coolers, in particular, may be their sweet and pleasant taste, which can lead to the perception that their consumption does not have harmful consequences (Graves & Kaskutas, 2002; Klein & Pittman, 1990; Osaki, Minowa, Suzuki & Wada, 2003). Furthermore, the alcohol level of wine coolers is commonly underestimated (Giacopassi & Stein, 1991). Given these findings, these beverages in particular should be targeted by prevention researchers. Unfortunately, one limitation of this study was that wine and wine coolers were not separated, but were combined into one beverage category. Therefore it is difficult to ascertain which of the two beverages adolescents are consuming, and if it is primarily one more than the other. The only notable gender difference was in lifetime use for malt liquor. Females were less likely than males to have ever consumed malt liquor, possibly because malt liquor manufacturers target males in their advertisements (Alaniz & Wilkes, 1998; Chen & Paschall, 2003), and possibly because malt beverages may be seen as more "masculine MASCULINE. That which belongs to the male sex. 2. The masculine sometimes includes the feminine, vide an example under the article Man, and see also the articles Gender, Worthiest of blood; Poth. Intr. au titre 16, des Testamens et Donations Testamentaires, n. ." There were also ethnic differences in beverage consumption. Whites were more likely than Blacks to have consumed wine/wine coolers and liquor, while Blacks were more likely to have consumed malt liquor. Again, the fact that malt liquor advertisers target African-Americans in general, and African-American males in particular (Alaniz & Wilkes, 1998; Chen & Paschall, 2003), may explain these gender and ethnicity differences. However, participants from other ethnicities were consistently more likely to have consumed all of the beverages measured. Unfortunately the sample, while reflective Refers to light hitting an opaque surface such as a printed page or mirror and bouncing back. See reflective media and reflective LCD. of the demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. of the northeast Florida region, lacked significant numbers of adolescents representative of minority races. Similarly, the sample population while recruited from three demographically diverse school setting, can not be generalized gen·er·al·ized adj. 1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain. 2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized. 3. to other adolescent samples and is not comparable to other national or regional studies (i.e., Youth Risk Behavior Survey The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) is a biannual survey of adolescent health risk and health protective behaviors such as smoking, drinking, drug use, diet, and physical activity conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. and Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey) until further research is conducted will larger youth populations. In addition, there are very few studies that have addressed specific alcohol beverages paralleling our study. The discriminant analyses revealed that there were several risk and protective factors that were important for predicting current use across a variety of beverages. The two most important factors, across all beverages, based on the standardized discriminating function coefficients, were intention to smoke, which predicted use of four out of the five beverages (beer, liquor, malt liquor, and fortified wine), and attitudes, which predicted use of three beverages (beer, wine/wine coolers, and liquor). Both of these factors are from the Theory of Planned Behavior. Perceived susceptibility to alcohol (from the Health Belief Model) predicted use of malt liquor and fortified wine. These same variables were also important in predicting consumption of most beverages based on the correlation coefficients. In addition, factors emanating primarily from the Theory of Planned Behavior and Social Cognitive Theory, including intention to drink, perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use, influenceability, and willingness to drink predicted use of all five beverages, while willingness to avoid alcohol, peer norms for alcohol, and self-efficacy predicted consumption of three beverages each based on the correlation coefficients. Examining beverages separately, there were at least two factors for each that were important based both on the standardized discriminating function coefficients and the correlation coefficients. They were: for beer, intention to smoke and attitudes; for wine/ wine coolers, perceived peer prevalence of alcohol use and attitudes; for liquor, intention to drink, intention to smoke, and attitudes; for malt liquor, intention to smoke and perceived susceptibility; and for fortified wine, intention to smoke, willingness to drink, and perceived susceptibility to alcohol. Thus, while there is some overlap across beverages, there are also differences. Also, it should be noted that the risk and protective factors included in the discriminant analyses accounted for relatively small amounts of variance across beverages (i.e., a low of 30% for malt liquor to a high of 45% for liquor). Thus, there are other important risk and protective factors mediating alcohol use among adolescents, which need to be studied in future research. Some of these factors may be those identified in other studies but not measured in this study, such as perceived severity (Kauffman, Silver & Poulin, 1997), behavioral capability (Werch, Moore, DiClemente, Owen, Jobli & Bledsoe, 2003), and sensation seeking (D'Silva et al., 2001). One serious limitation of this study was that the data were cross-sectional. Longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. analyses are necessary to determine the patterns of use of individual beverages, identify true causation causation Relation that holds between two temporally simultaneous or successive events when the first event (the cause) brings about the other (the effect). According to David Hume, when we say of two types of object or event that “X causes Y” (e.g. and the factors that underlie changes over time. However, the utility of cross-sectional design in this study is that it showed significant associations between variables and was able to provide a quantitative description of the magnitude of beverage-specific alcohol consumption among adolescents and the determination of consumption patterns across gender and ethnicity. In addition, cross-sectional study cross-sectional study n. See synchronic study. cross-sectional study, n the scientific method for the analysis of data gathered from two or more samples at one point in time. is a cost-effective design to generate new hypotheses that can be tested in future studies (Friis & Sellers, 1999). Another limitation is that this study relied upon self-report data. However, considerable care was taken to ensure honest responses by assuring confidentiality. Also, as stated earlier, the sample was somewhat limited as far as ethnic diversity. While we did find differences from other ethnicities on some measures, the small numbers of participants in the subgroups made comparisons tenuous tenuous Intensive care adjective Referring to a 'touch-and-go,' uncertain, or otherwise 'iffy' clinical situation . In conclusion, this study was a first step toward determining the prevalence of consumption of specific alcoholic beverages by adolescents. There were important differences in consumption found across beverage type, as well as by gender and ethnicity. Furthermore, risk and protective factors were identified that proved important in predicting use across all beverages, as well as for individual beverages. These results have the following implications for future prevention efforts: 1) Programs need to examine specific beverage use, specifically high potency alcohol beverages as these pose greater risk of harm; 2) Preventive intervention messages should have components that are tailored to gender and ethnicity; and 3) Prevention messages should be aimed at influencing beverage-specific risk and protective factors mediating alcohol use among adolescents. Author Note Edessa C. Jobli, Department of Health Education & Behavior, University of Florida University of Florida is the third-largest university in the United States, with 50,912 students (as of Fall 2006) and has the eighth-largest budget (nearly $1.9 billion per year). UF is home to 16 colleges and more than 150 research centers and institutes. ; Heather S. Dore, Department of Psychology, Florida Community College at Jacksonville The Florida Community College at Jacksonville (FCCJ) is located in Jacksonville, Florida, USA. It has five campuses in the Jacksonville area, and five additional centers which host classes and programs for students. ; Chudley E. Werch, Department of Health Education & Behavior, University of Florida; Michele J. Moore, Department of Public Health, University of North Florida The University of North Florida (UNF) is a public university in Jacksonville, Florida. It currently has an enrollment of more than 16,000 students and employs over 500 full-time faculty. The current president is former Jacksonville mayor John Delaney. . This manuscript manuscript, a handwritten work as distinguished from printing. The oldest manuscripts, those found in Egyptian tombs, were written on papyrus; the earliest dates from c.3500 B.C. was supported in part by a grant from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), as part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, supports and conducts biomedical and behavioral research on the causes, consequences, treatment, and prevention of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems. (Grant AA9283). Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edessa C. Jobli, MPH MPH Master of Public Health. MPH Master's Degree in Public Health , CHES, Addictive ad·dic·tive adj. 1. Causing or tending to cause addiction. 2. 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McBride, N. A., Midford, R.., Farringdon, E, & Phillips, M. (2000). Early results from a school alcohol harm minimization study: The School Health and Alcohol Harm Reduction Project. Addiction, 95, 1021-1042. McKeganey, N., Forsyth, A., Barnard, M., & Hay, G. (1996). Designer drinks and drunkenness Drunkenness See also Alcoholism. Acrasia self-indulgent in the pleasures of the senses. [Br. Lit.: Faerie Queene] Admiral of the red a wine-bibber. [Br. amongst a sample of Scottish schoolchildren schoolchildren school npl → écoliers mpl; (at secondary school) → collégiens mpl; lycéens mpl schoolchildren school . British Medical Journal, 313, 401. Osaka, Y., Minowa, M., Suzuki, K., & Wada, K. (2003). Adolescent alcohol use in Japan, 1996. Yonago Acta Medica medica (māˑ·dē·k ,_46, 35-43. Werch, C. (2000). The Youth Alcohol and Health Survey. Jacksonville, FL: University of North Florida, Center for Drug Prevention and Health Promotion. Werch, C., & Gorman, D. (1986). Factor analysis of internal and external self-control practices for alcohol consumption. Psychology Reports, 59, 1207-1213. Werch, C. E., Moore, M. J., DiClemente, C. C., Owen, D. M., Jobli, E. C., & Bledsoe, R. L. (2003). A sport-based intervention for preventing alcohol use and promoting physical activity among adolescents. Journal of School Health, 73(10), 380-388. References for Table 2 Frequency: 1= 0 days 2= 1-2 days 3= 3-5 days 4= 6-9 days 5= 10-19 days 6= 20-29 days 7= All 30 days Quantity: 1= I did not drink 2= 1 drink 3= 2 drinks 4= 3 drinks 5= 4 drinks 6= 5 or more drinks
Table 1. Lifetime Alcohol Use by Beverage Type, Gender, and Ethnicity
Beverage Gender Ethnicity
Male Female Black White
(n=172) (n=282) (n=165) (n=230)
% n % n % n % n
Lifetime
Use
Beer
Yes 38.4 66 30.9 87 27.3 45 37.0 85
No 61.6 106 69.1 195 72.7 120 63.0 145
Wine/Wine
Coolers
Yes 39.8 68 40.8 115 34.5 57 40.2 92
No 60.2 103 59.2 167 65.5 108 59.8 137
Liquor
Yes 26.2 45 23.0 65 10.9 18 30.0 69
No 73.8 127 77.0 217 89.1 147 70.0 161
Malt
Liquor
Yes 15.7 27 8.2 23 * 11.5 19 7.8 18
No 84.3 145 91.8 259 88.5 146 92.2 212
Fortified
Wine
Yes 9.3 16 7.8 22 6.7 11 7.0 16
No 90.7 156 92.2 260 93.3 154 93.0 214
Beverage Ethnicity
Total
Other Sample
(n=59) (n=454)
% n % n
Lifetime
Use
Beer
Yes 39.0 23 33.7 153
No 61.0 36 66.3 301
Wine/Wine
Coolers
Yes 57.6 34 ** 40.4 183
No 42.4 25 59.6 270
Liquor
Yes 39.0 23 *** 24.2 110
No 61.0 36 75.8 344
Malt
Liquor
Yes 22.0 13 ** 11.0 50
No 78.0 46 89.0 404
Fortified
Wine
Yes 18.6 11 ** 8.4 38
No 81.4 48 91.6 416
* p [less than or equal to] .05
** p [less than or equal to] .01
*** p [less than or equal to] .001
Table 2. Current Alcohol Use by Beverage Type, Gender and Ethnicity
Measure/Beverage Gender Ethnicity
Male Female Black
M SD M SD M SD
30-Day Frequency
Beer 1.22 .70 1.12 .57 1.01 .11
Wine/ Wine Coolers 1.30 .89 1.20 .67 1.18 .72
Liquor 1.20 .75 1.16 .63 1.06 .36
Malt Liquor 1.17 .74 1.07 .39 1.08 .43
Fortified Wine 1.16 .78 1.06 .38 1.08 .57
30-Day Quantity
Beer 1.23 .80 1.15 .68 1.05 .42
Wine/Wine Coolers 1.25 .73 1.23 .74 1.12 .42
Liquor 1.19 .69 1.19 .78 1.06 .34
Malt Liquor 1.18 .75 1.14 .74 1.08 .56
Fortified Wine 1.19 .66 1.17 .70 1.11 .52
Measure /Beverage Ethnicity
Total
White Other Sample
M SD M SD M SD
30-Day Frequency
Beer 1.22 .73 1.32 .88 *** 1.16 0.62
Wine/ Wine Coolers 1.24 .76 1.39 .87 1.23 0.76
Liquor 1.24 .84 1.22 .65 * 1.17 0.68
Malt Liquor 1.13 .65 1.14 .43 1.11 0.55
Fortified Wine 1.09 .56 1.17 .56 1.09 0.57
30-Day Quantity
Beer 1.25 .88 1.25 .73 * 1.18 0.73
Wine/Wine Coolers 1.28 .85 1.41 .85 * 1.24 0.73
Liquor 1.27 .93 1.24 .73 * 1.19 0.75
Malt Liquor 1.19 .85 1.24 .75 1.16 0.75
Fortified Wine 1.20 .76 1.29 .77 1.18 0.68
* p [less than or equal to] .05 ** p [less than or equal to] .01
*** p [less than or equal to] .001
Table 3. Discriminant Analyses of Risk and
Protective Factors by Beverage Specific Current Use
Beer (1) Wine/Wine
Coolers (2)
Corr. St. Corr. St.
Coeff. Fxn Coeff. Fxn
Coeff. Coeff.
Risk factors:
Plan to drink (b) .722 .197 -.764 -.256
Plan to smoke (b) .570 .317 -.457
Plan to use marijuana (b) .421 -.432
Willing to drink (b) .719 .294 -.580
Expectancy beliefs (pro) (a) -.483 .562
Peer prevalence alcohol (a) -.508 .732 .339
Influenceability (b) .603 -.683
Attitudes (b) .735 .357 -.762 -.341
Peer norms alcohol (b) .465 -.620
Parent norms (alcohol) (b) .456 .176 -.369
Protective factors:
Willing to avoid alcohol (a) -.524 .483
Expectancy beliefs (con) (a) -.290 .321
Resistance self-efficacy (a) -.483 .628 .196
Self-control (a) .158 -.210
Perceived susceptibility -.482 .646 .267
alcohol (a)
Parental monitoring (b) .160 -.300
Parent-child .030 -.113
communication (b)
Parent-child relationship (b) .130 -.189
Parent-child alcohol .099 -.189
communication (b)
Parent bonding (b) .248 -.325
School bonding (b) .224 -.341
Value incompatibility -.528 -.231 .397
alcohol (a)
Liquor (3) Malt Liquor (4)
Corr. St. Corr. St.
Coeff. Fxn Coeff. Fxn
Coeff. Coeff.
Risk factors:
Plan to drink (b) .778 .338 .736 .285
Plan to smoke (b) .586 .304 .776 .539
Plan to use marijuana (b) .546 .233 .462
Willing to drink (b) .697 .283 .530
Expectancy beliefs (pro) (a) -.441 -.491
Peer prevalence alcohol (a) -.526 -.713 -.282
Influenceability (b) .590 .557
Attitudes (b) .693 .337 .526
Peer norms alcohol (b) .452 .536
Parent norms (alcohol) (b) .328 .389
Protective factors:
Willing to avoid alcohol (a) -.508 -.488
Expectancy beliefs (con) (a) -.262 -.306
Resistance self-efficacy (a) -.494 -.538
Self-control (a) .158 .148
Perceived susceptibility -.451 -.570 -.301
alcohol (a)
Parental monitoring (b) .153 .201
Parent-child .052 .114
communication (b)
Parent-child relationship (b) .167 .167
Parent-child alcohol .071 .129
communication (b)
Parent bonding (b) .268 .356
School bonding (b) .189 .292
Value incompatibility -.364 -.387
alcohol (a)
Fortified Wine
(5)
Corr. St.
Coeff. Fxn
Coeff.
Risk factors:
Plan to drink (b) .651
Plan to smoke (b) .541 .319
Plan to use marijuana (b) .374
Willing to drink (b) .746 .353
Expectancy beliefs (pro) (a) -.497
Peer prevalence alcohol (a) -.511
Influenceability (b) .703 .196
Attitudes (b) .730 .268
Peer norms alcohol (b) .519
Parent norms (alcohol) (b) .348
Protective factors:
Willing to avoid alcohol (a) -.502
Expectancy beliefs (con) (a) -.324
Resistance self-efficacy (a) -.510
Self-control (a) .183
Perceived susceptibility -.656 -.350
alcohol (a)
Parental monitoring (b) .208
Parent-child .069
communication (b)
Parent-child relationship (b) .187
Parent-child alcohol .170
communication (b)
Parent bonding (b) .290
School bonding (b) .269
Value incompatibility -.389
alcohol (a)
(a) High score = High risk (b) Low score = High risk
(1) 90.2% of cases correctly classified (91.6% no, 76.7% yes)
(2) 84.9% of cases correctly classified (87.1% no, 71.9% yes)
(3) 92.0% of cases correctly classified (93.2% no, 81.4% yes)
(4) 92.4% of cases correctly classified (94.1 % no, 66.7% yes)
(5) 89.5% of cases correctly classified (90.3% no, 81.8% yes)
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