Helping Children Cope With Stress in the Classroom Setting.

Ten-year-old Sheila lives with her mother and 7-year-old brother in a middle-class neighborhood. Although Sheila usually receives good grades in school she becomes very anxious prior to a big test or project. She has a few friends, but frequently has disagreements with them. In fact, she is considered unpopular and is occasionally taunted at school. At the end of each school day, Sheila and her brother go home to an empty house, where they are usually alone for an hour or two. On the days their mother works late, Sheila and her brother may be alone for up to four hours, and Sheila is responsible for preparing dinner.

Although faced with numerous stressors, Sheila has only a few coping strategies at her disposal, none of which are very effective. For example, Sheila starts fights when she has trouble getting along with her classmates. She uses television as an escape from the pressures of schoolwork or being alone at home. As a result, Sheila usually gets a late start on her assignments, and subsequently stays up past her normal bedtime to complete her work. She becomes tired and irritable, making it difficult for her to pay attention the next day in class or to get along with her peers and teachers.

Like Sheila, many school-age children are subject to school-related stressors such as failing grades, overly demanding classroom environments, athletic requirements, peer relationships, tests, and conflicts with teachers (Jewett, 1997; Romano, 1997; Scherer, 1996; Sears & Milburn, 1990). Stress is part of even the youngest students' lives, making the concept of a carefree childhood nearly obsolete (Large, 1999). Teachers witness many of these stressors and their effects on the classroom. Academic problems, behavioral problems, children's complaints of stomachaches or headaches, and drug use all may be related to excessive levels of stress in children's lives (Omizo, Omizo, & Suzuki, 1988; Ryan-Wenger & Copeland, 1994).

Various theoretical models explain stress and its effects on individuals. None of these models, however, deals explicitly with childhood stress. One popular model, the cognitive-transactional model, does provide a convincing means of describing children's experiences with stress (e.g., Atkins & Krantz, 1993; Ryan-Wenger & Copeland, 1994; Sharrer & Ryan-Wenger, 1991; Sorensen, 1994).

Key Concepts of the Cognitive-Transactional Model

Within the cognitive-transactional model people and their environments are thought to be "engaged in a dynamic, mutually reciprocal, bi-directional relationship" (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b, p. 289). Environmental stimuli evoke cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses, which then influence the environment. A person's thoughts, emotions, and actions change as a stressful encounter progresses. His or her appraisal of the situation consequently determines the choice of coping actions.

Daily Stressors and Cognitive Appraisal

A stressor is "any event in which environmental demands, internal demands, or both tax or exceed the adaptive resources of an individual, social system, or tissue system" (Monat & Lazarus, 1985, p. 3). Stressors may be divided into major life events (e.g., the death of a parent or the birth of sibling), chronic strain (e.g., living in poverty, ongoing abuse, or chronic illness), and daily stressors (e.g., taking a test or arguing with a sibling) (Haggerty, 1986; Trad & Greenblatt, 1990). This article focuses on daily stressors.

Daily stressors are "the irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to some degree characterize everyday transactions with the environment" (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981, p. 3). For the school-age child, daily stressors may include anxiety about school, conflicts with teachers, competition with peers or siblings, lack of parental interest, personal injury or loss, poor grades, fear of success or failure, and fear of medical visits and procedures (Dickey & Henderson, 1989; Sears & Milburn, 1990). Other stressors reported among school-age children include fear of negative evaluation, parental conflict or loss, unfair punishment, school work, and boredom (Atkins, 1991; Dickey & Henderson, 1989; Kanner, Feldman, Weinberger, & Ford, 1987; Lewis, Siegel, & Lewis, 1984; Spirito, Stark, Grace, & Stamoulis, 1991). The occurrence of daily stressors in childhood appears to be related to adaptational outcomes such as depression, sense of self-worth, and overall health status (Kanner et al., 1987; Siegel & Brown, 1988).

The meaning attached to a stressor varies from child to child, according to individual perceptions (often referred to as cognitive appraisals). Cognitive appraisal is a matter of determining which events are considered stressful and evaluating one's coping resources and options (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986; Lazarus & Launier, 1978). Cognitive appraisal, which is influenced by situational factors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b), further determines the degree of psychological stress.

Coping Strategies

Coping may be defined as "efforts to master conditions of harm, threat, or challenge when a routine or automatic response is not readily available" (Monat & Lazarus, 1985, p. 5). Coping strategies refer to purposeful, cognitive, and behavioral efforts to manage stress. Some coping strategies may increase the risk of physiological arousal or maladaptation during stressful events, while others improve adaptation and reduce the risks of undesirable outcomes (Monat & Lazarus, 1985; Rutter, 1983). Children's coping strategies are affected by personal and environmental factors such as age, gender, temperament, developmental level, the environmental context in which the stressor occurs, personal resources, prior ways of coping, and personal control (Compas, 1987; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984a; Moos & Schaefer, 1993; Rutter, 1983; Sorensen, 1993).

Children use a variety of coping strategies in response to daily stressors (Beaver, 1997). Some strategies are directed at changing stressors, while others are directed at managing the emotions triggered by stressors. Specific examples include thinking about something else, participating in religious activities, expressing emotions, being physically active, and behaving aggressively (Atkins, 1991; Britt, 1995; Dickey & Henderson, 1989; Jewett, 1997; Ryan-Wenger, 1992, 1996). Other coping strategies frequently reported among school-age children include cognitive restructuring, problem solving, emotional regulation, wishful thinking, and submission (Sorensen, 1993; Spirito et al., 1991).

Resources

Children may call upon both psychological and environmental resources, which precede and influence coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b). When a stressful event occurs, children mobilize their resources in response (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984a; Lazarus & Launier, 1978). Resources "are something one draws upon, whether they are readily available to the person (e.g., money, tools, people to help, or relevant skills) or whether they exist as competencies for finding resources that are needed but not available" (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b, p. 158). Examples of resources that affect coping are health and energy, positive beliefs, problem-solving skills, self-esteem, mastery, social skills, material resources, and social support (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984b; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). Social support can modify the potentially negative effects of stress by either reducing the stress itself or facilitating an individual's efforts to cope (Monat & Lazarus, 1985).

Children's social support needs may be emotional (e.g., enhancing self-esteem), informational (e.g., giving advice), instrumental (e.g., providing material resources), and/or companionship (e.g., doing fun activities together) (Reid, Landesman, Treder, & Jaccard, 1989). Parents, grandparents, siblings, teachers, and friends often provide this support (Dunn, Slomkowski, & Beardsall, 1994; Furman & Buhrmester, 1985; Wasserstein & La Greca, 1996).

Suggestions for Interventions in the Classroom

Classroom teachers can play a vital role in helping students manage daily stress effectively. Because so many stressors are directly related to the school environment and because stress-related problems affect students' performance in school topics of stress and coping should be considered part of the curriculum. Lessons about stress and coping can be incorporated into various subject areas. For example, biological responses to stress can be taught in science, and skills for coping with stress and for enhancing social support can be taught in health and wellness classes. Children can read and write about stressors in language arts, and can express their feelings about stressors through artwork.

Through ongoing collaborative efforts with the school counselor, nurse, other school personnel and parents, teachers can help children learn to cope effectively with stress. By working together, sharing ideas, and combining resources, these adults will offer the best assistance to students.

Identifying Daily Stressors

Teachers should familiarize themselves with the stressors that commonly affect children, keeping in mind that what is stressful for one child may not be stressful for another child. Identifying stressors in the classroom is the first step teachers can take in helping their students manage stress. Teachers can accomplish this through graffiti boards, group discussions, and behavioral observations.

Graffiti Board. A graffiti board--a bulletin board covered with paper--can be useful for assessing stressors by providing students with an opportunity for self-expression. Label the paper with a title like "Things that are stressful for me," and encourage the children to anonymously describe their stressors. Students will feel some release by writing down their problems, and they will learn what their classmates find stressful. A graffiti board may be used in conjunction with lessons on stress and coping, especially during particularly stressful times of the school year (e.g., before the holidays or prior to important tests). In a similar technique, teachers provide a box in which children can anonymously submit stressors they would like to hear discussed in class. Teachers will gain a general sense of the types of stressors experienced by the students.

Large-group Discussion. An effective classroom dialogue could be generated by using the Feel Bad Scale, a childhood stressor instrument created by Charles Lewis and his colleagues (Lewis, Siegel & Lewis, 1984). Specifically, they recommend children could be asked these questions:

* What makes you feel bad, nervous, or worried?

* How often has this happened in the last [time frame]?

* How did this make you feel?

This questioning technique will likely elicit comparable responses from different children. It can be reassuring for children to know that their peers also find certain events to be stressful.

Some children may not be comfortable sharing their stressors in a group setting. As an alternative, have children submit written responses. Teachers then can lead a group discussion and share the students' stressors without identifying anyone. A fun activity to complement such a group discussion is to have children draw, decorate, and cut out pictures of bugs. On their pictures they can write down the things that "bug" them (i.e., their stressors) (Chenfeld, 1995).

Observations. Teachers can observe students for signs or symptoms of stress, such as regressive behaviors, withdrawal, irritability, inability to concentrate in school, and difficulty getting along with peers (O'Rourke, 1996). Other indicators include recurrent abdominal pain and frequent headaches (Ryan-Wenger & Copeland, 1994). If a teacher finds that a child is demonstrating ongoing stress-related symptoms, it may be useful to document firsthand observations and seek the observations of other school professionals. Communication with the student and parents about the observed behaviors is vital.

Responding to Daily Stressors

Having identified specific stressors, teachers should address those that cause students to feel the worst and that occur most frequently. Teachers may respond by changing stressors or by helping children to appraise stressors more positively. These interventions help shape children's cognitive appraisals of stressors, thus decreasing their stress levels.

Changing Stressors. One way to reduce the severity of stressors is to change or remove them, although this is not always possible. Educators can help a student who complains that he is bored by assignments that are too easy, for example, by providing more difficult assignments. Also, teachers may be able to intervene in peer-related stress by separating children who persistently tease or annoy one another, or who compete with one another. Sheila, the child in the opening example, could benefit from such interventions.

Changing Appraisals. Another way to reduce the severity of stressors is to help change children's perceptions of stressors. Such a process is difficult and may require the child to undergo counseling (Ryan-Wenger, 1990). Within the classroom, teachers could ask the children to role-play their perceptions of various stressful situations. Scenarios of different stressors may be read to children (e.g., "Imagine you have a spelling test the next day, but when you get home from school, you realize you have forgotten to bring your spelling book"). Children state their perceptions of such a situation and describe how it would make them feel (e.g., "My day would be ruined. I would feel like a loser for forgetting my book, and I would worry that my parents would be mad at me. I would not know how I was going to be able to study"). A group could generate alternative ways of perceiving the event (e.g., "It's not that big of a deal. Everybody forgets things. It was an honest mistake. I'm sure I can find a way to study").

Another way to alter children's appraisals of daily events is to help them focus on positive experiences. This may be accomplished by having children brainstorm the people, places, times, and events in their lives that make them happy. The teacher can facilitate the brainstorming session and write down all of the suggestions on a colorful display, which can be decorated with children's illustrations (Chenfeld, 1995).

Identifying and Facilitating Coping Strategies

Children respond to stressors with various coping strategies. Learning to cope effectively with stress may help prevent illness or reduce the chance that the child will behave inappropriately. Changing unsuccessful coping strategies appears to be a practical intervention that can be facilitated by various people. As children will most likely be more successful using techniques they are comfortable with and have had prior experience using, teachers should encourage children to identify effective strategies that they already use, rather than teach them new ones. These strategies may be identified through regular group discussions or as part of a health and wellness curriculum.

Group Discussion. Teachers can ask children the following questions, which were used in the development of the Schoolagers' Coping Strategies Inventory (SCSI) (Ryan, 1989):

* Think of the last thing that made you feel bad, nervous, or worried. What did you do? What made you feel better?

* When something happens that makes you feel bad, nervous, or worried, what do you usually do that helps you the most?

* What do you do that doesn't help much, but you do it anyway? (p. 114)

Children may be receptive to trying new coping strategies suggested by their classmates. In small groups, children can address a stressful scenario (e.g., "You have to take an important exam today"). Group members will be asked to think of potential coping strategies and to role-play each suggestion. The children should debate the merits of each proposed strategy as a way to encourage consideration of alternative ways to cope with actual stressors.

Teachers can help children evaluate effectiveness of the coping strategies according to two criteria. First, a strategy is effective if it helps a child to feel better (e.g., less bad, nervous, or worried). Conversely, a strategy is ineffective if it does not help a child to feel better, or if it is dangerous or unhealthful (e.g., it involves overeating or alcohol use). Teachers can emphasize the use of cognitive and problem-solving strategies for those stressors under the children's control (e.g., studying to improve bad grades or saying "I'm sorry" to a friend after a fight). For events that are beyond children's control, coping strategies that rely on distraction can be helpful (e.g., thinking about something else, reading, or watching a video). In Sheila's case, however, watching television was not an effective way of coping, as she delayed working on her school assignments.

Using Literature As a Tool. Books can be an excellent medium for teaching children about stressors and coping strategies. One such book that could be used with younger children is Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day (Viorst, 1972). After a classroom reading of this book, teachers can have students identify each stressor described in the book and answer the following questions:

* Did Alexander have any choice or control over this stressor?

* What is something Alexander could do to feel better or to change this stressor?

* Could this response be harmful or dangerous to Alexander or to someone else?

The ensuing classroom discussion would not only help children to identify stressors and potential coping strategies, but also teach children how to evaluate the effectiveness of their own coping strategies. Older children could use a similar approach as part of a book report assignment.

Teaching New Strategies. Children who, like Sheila, have a very limited repertoire of coping methods need to be taught new strategies. Relaxation and breathing techniques, positive imagery, and self-talk skills can be addressed in a group setting and will be helpful for those who experience anxiety before a test or an oral report. Other strategies include exercising, writing in a journal, or learning effective studying techniques. Educators may benefit from the wide variety of related books and videos, as well as workshops that teach such coping strategies (e.g., Attwell, 1994). "Children will experience less stress once they gain access to a wider range of strategies and feel more effective in their coping strategies" (Jewett, 1997, p. 173).

Enhancing Available Resources

According to the cognitive-transactional model, children with few available resources--specifically, good health and energy, self-esteem, and social support--are more likely to use ineffective coping strategies and exhibit stress-related behaviors and symptoms. Therefore, enhancing children's available resources may protect children from the most deleterious effects of stress (Smith & Carlson, 1997).

Promoting Health and Energy. To identify students who may not be healthy or energetic, teachers should consider those children who frequently visit the school nurse, are habitually absent due to illness, or regularly appear tired or malnourished. Efforts to enhance children's well-being must be family-centered. Parents may need to be educated about their child's physical and emotional needs (e.g., adequate sleep and proper nutrition) and provided linking information about outside agencies. Classroom lessons can focus on the importance of exercise, proper hygiene, and a well-balanced diet. For a group activity, children could make posters or a bulletin board about things that they do to take care of themselves.

Promoting Self-Esteem. Because of low self-esteem, some children may appear to lack confidence in their abilities to cope effectively with stressors, and consequently may need sessions with the school counselor. Teachers can do their part to raise students' self-esteem by providing children positive feedback about their unique attributes and skills, and by facilitating specific classroom activities. For example, teachers could designate a "person of the day" and ask each student to write down one thing he or she likes about that person. The teacher then compiles all of the comments and presents the chosen student with a paper filled with positive remarks from classmates. This can be done on a daily basis until each student has been the "person of the day."

In another activity, one day each week throughout the school year one child presents a brief autobiography to the class. The students should follow specific guidelines for giving such a presentation, including talking about their family, sharing their interests and talents, and writing down their favorite things. Students could keep structured journals throughout the school year--a process that can help them identify their unique characteristics and strengths. Each day, children would briefly respond to an open-ended statement (e.g., "My favorite subject at school is ...," "I'm a good friend because ...," "When I grow up I want to be...").

Promoting Social Support. Children who have difficulty getting along well with others often lack social support from family members and peers. To assess children's level of social support, teachers can ask them the following questions (based on Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1997):

* Who are the people you feel close to at home? at school? in your neighborhood? in your extended family? Are there other people you feel close to?

* When do you go to other people for support? Who do you most often turn to? How does that person help you?

Children may be more comfortable with written, rather than oral responses. Information sheets (Fallin, 1999) can complement a discussion on social support (see Figure 1).

Important People in Your Life

Certain things in your life can help you deal with stress. One
of the most important is having people around who will help you.
These people may include family members, friends, classmates, or
a scout leader.

Under each heading in the following "web of support," write
down the names of people you feel close to and care about.

AT HOME

AT SCHOOL

OTHER FRIENDS OR ADULTS

OTHER RELATIVES

IN YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD

Children who lack adequate social support at home will need greater support from adults at school. Since peer relationships are such an important component of social support, school personnel should focus on providing opportunities for social skills training. Teachers can promote friendships by encouraging positive interactions among students, providing opportunities for children to socialize at school and promoting teamwork within the classroom setting. A friendship bulletin board is one way to encourage students to evaluate their friendships and create a supportive classroom environment. Choose a theme (e.g., "The only way to have a friend is to be one") and have students draw pictures of activities that friends do together, make a collage of friends' pictures, or write about what qualifies people want in a friend (Jones & Jones, 1990).

Summary of Interventions With Sheila

Sheila's chances for happiness and success in school are hindered by the presence of multiple stressors, her ineffective coping strategies, and inadequate resources. As indicated in Figure 2, Sheila could benefit from many of the interventions suggested throughout this article. The first step would be to evaluate Sheila's stressors, her existing coping strategies, and available resources. The next step would be to implement specific strategies targeted at: 1) reducing Sheila's stressors or changing her appraisal of stressors, 2) teaching her effective coping strategies, and 3) enhancing her resources.

Figure 2
Classroom Interventions Utilizing the Cognitive-Transactional Model

Theoretical Concept      General Classroom   Specific Responses
                         Interventions       to "Sheila"

DAILY STRESSORS          Identify            Daily stressors
AND                      stressors.          include tests, school
COGNITIVE APPRAISAL                          projects,
All children perceive                        disagreements with
different events to be                       friends, teasing
stressful. Cognitive                         from classmates, going
appraisal involves                           home to an empty
deciding how an                              house, and being
event will affect                            responsible for
one's well-being,                            cooking dinner.
as well as evaluating
one's resources          Change or remove    Social skills training
and potential coping     stressors, when     could lead to being
strategies.              appropriate,        teased less often by
                                             classmates. Discuss
                                             with Sheila's mother
                                             ways to minimize time
                                             alone at home and
                                             simplify dinner
                                             preparation.

                         Help change         Through the help of
                         appraisals from     individual or group
                         negative to         counseling sessions,
                         positive.           Sheila might learn
                                             to perceive events in
                                             a positive, more
                                             manageable light.

COPING STRATEGIES
The coping strategies    Identify and        Current strategies
used during childhood    evaluate current    (including picking
are affected by age,     strategies.         fights and watching
gender, personal                             television) are
resources, and                               ineffective.
personal control.
The use of effective     Reinforce           Teach new strategies,
coping strategies can    effective           such as relaxation
lead to positive         strategies and      and breathing
adaptation.              teach new ones.     techniques,
                                             journaling,
                                             exercising, and
                                             learning new study
                                             and test-taking
                                             skills.

RESOURCES
Many potential           Evaluate            Sheila has friends,
resources can            available           but they are often a
influence children's     resources.          source of stress. She
ability to cope.                             derives some support
Social support                               from her family, but
can be especially                            does not spend much
useful to                                    time with an adult
school-age children.                         caretaker.

                         Enhance             Discuss with Sheila's
                         resources of        mother the importance
                         health and          of her daughter
                         energy,             getting adequate
                         self-esteem,        sleep, and mention
                         and social          the possibility of
                         support.            signing up Sheila for
                                             an after-school
                                             program to give her
                                             additional social
                                             support. Work with
                                             the school counselor
                                             to improve Sheila's
                                             social skills.

Conclusion

Classroom teachers, through collaborative efforts with other members of an education team, can be instrumental in helping students manage daily stressors effectively. Using the cognitive-transactional model as a guide, teachers can identify events that children find to be stressful, teach children effective coping strategies, and find creative ways to enhance available resources.

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Karen Fallin is a Research Associate, Wilson Consulting. Charlotte Wallinga and Mick Coleman are Associate Professors, Department of Child and Family Development, University of Georgia, Athens.