Health benefits of leisure.

Leisure's contribution to health has attracted attention since the early 1970s (Neulinger & Breit, 1971). Recent research has indicated a growing interest in identifying specific types of leisure activities that contribute to well-being and understanding how leisure contributes (Brown, Frankel & Fennell, 1991; Carpenter, 1994). Evidence of this interest is found in a collection of papers edited by Driver, Brown and Peterson (1991) that describe scribe the diverse benefits society and individuals receive from leisure, as well as, a compilation of papers specific to leisure and mental health (Compton & Iso-Aloha, 1994). In the review of the following studies, health is operationalized in various ways; in some instances it may be viewed as narrowly as mental health (Carpenter, 1994), in others as broadly as the combination of physical, mental, emotional, social and spiritual well-being (Ragheb, 1993). However health is operationalized, it is viewed as important to overall quality of life. A common finding of the research presented here is that leisure enhances health because it serves as a buffer to life's stressful events.

Coleman (1993) contends that leisure assists in maintaining physical and mental health by helping people resist stress induced illness, which can lead to enhanced well-being. Perceived leisure freedom appears to be a critical element in mitigating the effects of stress. Individuals who perceived freedom during leisure participation coped better with life stress than those who perceived their leisure participation to be constrained. In a survey study of 104 adults, Coleman also found that people experienced greater benefits from leisure when life stress was high than when life stress was low. Two plausible explanations are that leisure involvement acted in a preventive manner when stress increased, or that people sought more leisure to escape from increased stress.

The buffering effect of leisure on stress throughout life was revealed in a focus group study with older women (Siegenthaler & Vaughan, 1996). The women perceived that leisure contributed to their mental and emotional balance because it provided opportunities to escape the daily stress of life, as well as, cope with major traumas such as the loss of a family member. Leisure enabled them to face the negative events in life and still be happy.

A Consistent Link

Seeking leisure in an attempt to escape stress is also reported in a case study of a middle-aged woman's life experience over a five-year period (Carpenter, 1994). During the study period, "Annie" experienced a number of stress-producing life events such as marriage, death of family members, change in job, personal illness and change in financial status. Throughout these events, a consistent link between stress and leisure is revealed. Annie consistently perceived leisure as her most enjoyable time and as the time when she experienced no stress. Because of leisure's stress-relieving capabilities, Annie generally desired more leisure than what she had. Carpenter suggests that, for Annie, because leisure provided escape from the stress of minor and major life events, it contributed to overall well-being and mental health.

Melamed and Meir (1995) explored the relationship of leisure congruence to well-being among 160 engineers, technicians, physicians and lawyers. They found that individuals who engage in leisure activities that match their personality type experience increase well-being. For example, lawyers are considered to have an investigative personality type. Lawyers who participated in investigative leisure activities, such as reading and gardening, experienced higher work satisfaction and self-esteem, less burnout, fewer somatic complaints and less anxiety. Some of the study participants had jobs that did not fit their personality types which resulted in increased stress. For these individuals, selection of congruent leisure activities was of greater importance.

Stress also occurs as the result of unemployment. Pesavento Raymond and Kelly (1991) found that leisure is an important coping mechanism for unemployed minority youth. Interviews with 228 unemployed African American and Hispanic 16-25 year olds in inner city Chicago revealed that leisure contributed to their physical and mental health. Chronic unemployment may result in depression, anger, frustration, and loss of self-esteem and self confidence. Leisure activities help combat these feelings by relieving stress and providing a sense of purpose and accomplishment. Sports and health-related activities were of particular value to males in offering opportunities to demonstrate skill and directed effort. Participation in personally meaningful leisure activities served as a hedge against boredom brought on by too much free time. The social support provided through leisure activities with family and friends enhanced self-esteem. African Americans in this study seemed more comfortable using leisure to compensate for unemployment than Hispanics.

Dupuis and Smale (1995) found that regular participation in a variety of leisure activities is positively related to psychological well-being and negatively related to depression in Canadians (N = 743) aged 55 and older. The authors considered six leisure activities: television viewing, hobbies/crafts, social clubs/organizations, visiting friends, walking for exercise, swimming and found that three (participation in hobbies/crafts, visiting with friends, swimming) showed positive relationships to psychological well-being. The more regular the participation, the greater the psychological well-being. One activity, television viewing was negatively related to well-being.

These same three activities were negatively related to depression, and as participation increased, depression decreased. In this study, participation in crafts and hobbies was most strongly related to high psychological well-being and low depression. The authors suggest that crafts and hobbies may satisfy more personal needs such as self-expression, self-fulfillment, accomplishment, and purpose than the other activities examined. They also suggest that the relationship between leisure involvement and psychological well-being is reciprocal, in that an increase in one leads to an increase in the other.

Balancing Life's

Demands

Caldwell, Smith and Weissinger (1992) investigated the contribution leisure makes to physical, mental and social health of 525 undergraduate college students at three universities. Many students report a high degree of stress in their attempt to balance the demands of work, family, studies, social life, and leisure pursuits. The authors found that students with high levels of participation in a variety of leisure activities experienced higher rates of perceived physical, mental and social health. Additionally, they had greater leisure and life satisfaction. High involvement in sports and entertainment related activities and adventure activities was of particular significance to perceived physical health. Students who were more active in social activities and competitive sports perceived better mental health. Perceived social health was enhanced by involvement in social, adventure, entertainment, nature and competitive sports. Leisure involvement is also linked to satisfaction regarding the use of free time.

Another study of college students revealed that boredom in leisure negatively influences physical and mental health (Weissinger, 1995). Students who experienced less leisure boredom reported better mental and physical health. The findings suggest that when college students are bored in leisure, they engage in negative health behaviors such as substance abuse, smoking and alienation. Additionally, leisure boredom may be indicative of reduced ability to cope with stress. The connection between the two studies of college students (Caldwell, Smith & Weissinger, 1992; Weissinger, 1995) appears to be that participation in a variety of leisure activities combats boredom and contributes to healthier behaviors.

Leisure can also help boost morale during times of major life trauma. In interviews of 60 recently bereaved widows and widowers in Australia, Patterson and Carpenter (1994) found that, although leisure participation did not significantly help individuals adjust to widowhood, it did enhance morale. While little can alleviate the grief and sense of loss that accompanies the death of a spouse, the increase in morale derived from leisure involvement is important to the maintenance of mental health during this time. Social leisure activities with friends, neighbors and family were especially important in providing support. During early widowhood, the main contributions of leisure may be its diversionary capabilities and its ability to provide a sense of activity and purpose.

The importance of leisure to the individual's well-being is revealed in Klieber, Brock, Lee, Dattilo, and Caldwell's (1995) interviews with 20 people with spinal cord injuries. When the ability to engage in favorite leisure activities (i.e., hunting, playing with children, social activities) was lost or altered, individuals felt that their personal identities were threatened. They had lost an essential piece of who they were and how they related to others. Informants defined the good days, at least to some degree, by their ability to participate in leisure activities. Bad days were defined, in part, by their inability. The authors suggest that leisure activities can contribute to the rebuilding of personal identities for those who experience traumatic life events.

Identify Specifics

In the search for greater understanding of the role leisure plays in health, some researchers have sought to identify specific activities that enhance various aspects of health. Others have attempted to assess the amount of leisure involvement necessary to enhance health. Ragheb (1993), in his survey of 216 private firm employees, found that both, type of leisure activity and amount of leisure participation, contribute to perceived wellness (physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual). Specifically, reading and social activities were positively related to total perceived wellness. Additionally, individuals who participated more in leisure activities perceived themselves to have higher levels of wellness. However, the strongest indicator of perceived wellness was leisure satisfaction. Individuals who found their leisure to be meaningful and fulfilling reported higher perceived wellness. Relaxing activities and aesthetically pleasing leisure environments also contributed significantly to perceived wellness. Ragheb suggests that these elements are requisite if enhanced well-being is to be achieved. He concludes that the meaning and quality of the leisure experience contributes more to perceived wellness than participation itself.

Lawton's (1994) survey of Elderhostelers (N = 828) aged 60 and older revealed that those who participated more regularly in leisure activities experienced higher positive affect and contentment. Lawton did not attempt to identify specific activities that contribute to well-being, however, he did note that the study population engaged in a variety of leisure activities. He suggested that their good health and economic status provided them with a good deal of freedom in activity selection.

Brown, Frankel and Fennell (1991) surveyed Canadians (N = 685) aged 18-69. They found that participation in a variety of leisure activities is important to well-being. The type of activity and frequency of involvement that contributes to well-being varies by age and gender. The findings are consistent with Ragheb (1993) in that the activity itself is less important than the satisfaction gained from the experience.

Conclusions and

implications.

Several of the studies discussed indicate that some types of leisure activities contribute more to health for specific groups, yet it remains unclear exactly how the activities contribute. Other studies indicate that the meaning of the leisure experience is more important to enhanced health than a specific activity. Overall, the results clearly indicate that leisure participation enhances health at various levels. Melamed and Meir's (1995) finding, that leisure activities that fit an individual's personality are more likely to be meaningful and satisfying, provides a link between activity and meaning. Although research is needed to further explore the importance of `leisure fit', some initial implications can be made. Because leisure participation enhances health, it is important that all people have greater opportunities to experience meaningful leisure. Leisure professionals can serve as the enablers in three major areas. First, they can provide leisure education and leisure counseling to help individuals discover leisure opportunities and the diversity of participation options within specific activities. Second, leisure professionals can work to remove perceived and actual constraints to leisure for all populations: youth to older adults, able-bodied and those with disabilities, rich and poor. Third, leisure professionals can seek effective ways to communicate the benefits of leisure and encourage people to make leisure a priority in their lives.

References

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