Good work, if you can get it: how to attract and retain dedicated volunteers. (Research Update).

Volunteering refers to any activity in which an individual gives freely to benefit other people, groups or organizations. Volunteers, however, also benefit greatly from their giving. Volunteering is part of a general cluster of helping activities and could mean involvement in voluntary associations as well as activism focusing on social change or donations of money, supplies or blood (Wilson, 2000). Other emerging terms associated with volunteering include community service, neighborliness, experiential learning, corporate social responsibility, friends groups, self-help, public service, service learning and community involvement (Winter, 1998a).

Americans spend more time volunteering than citizens of any other country, and the amount of time spent volunteering increases in every age group except the very old (Powers, 1998). Volunteering is an activity that, when established early, continues throughout life (Powers, 1998). Approximately 50 percent of American adults volunteer in nonprofit organizations, with an estimated $150 billion worth of services being provided annually (Independent Sector, 1990). In 2001, the dollar value of volunteer time was $16.05 per hour (Independent Sector, 2002).

Facilitating volunteering in organizations requires investment and training, but has obvious benefits--a recent study in Europe estimated that every dollar invested in volunteering brought eight in return (Smith, 2001). The purpose of this research update is to highlight how research on volunteerism can assist parks and recreation organizations with recruiting and promoting volunteerism in their organizations.

Reasons for Volunteering

Two related but distinct dimensions must be discussed regarding volunteers. These include individual as well as organizational aspects. The psychology of volunteering is important to address and relates directly to the sociology of organizational behavior. For instance, a recent study in public parks and recreation settings found that satisfied volunteers had higher levels of commitment to the organization and exhibited more organizational citizenship behaviors towards their co-workers (Silverberg, Ellis, Whitworth, Kane, in press).

Limited research has been undertaken to describe how volunteering possesses characteristics of work as well as leisure (Henderson, 1981). The value of thinking about how volunteering is like leisure lies in how recreation professionals facilitate opportunities for individuals to volunteer to meet their needs as well as to develop social capital.

Volunteering may take on many facets. Stebbins (2000) described how volunteering might be casual or serious. Serious or career volunteering refers to involvement such as an amateur or hobbyist with a substantial commitment and identity associated with volunteering. Examples might include serving as an officer in an organization or being a youth sports coach or scout leader. Casual volunteering is on the opposite end of the spectrum and includes immediate, occasional activities that generally don't require a long-term commitment.

These volunteers might also be referred to as lend-a-hand or short-term volunteers (Tedrick & Henderson, 1989).

Wilson (2000) undertook a major literature review to examine theories that have influenced volunteer involvement. He noted that people volunteer because of their characteristics, relationships and the community context. Clary and colleagues (1998) determined major motivations for volunteering, ranging from altruistic reasons to career opportunities. Becker and Dhingra (2001) studied religious involvement and volunteering, and found that social networks and impressions of organizational identity drew people into volunteering. People in public parks and recreation departments volunteered because someone they knew benefited from their volunteering, they perceived that the program wouldn't survive without their help or they wanted to be better citizens and learn about local government operations (Silverberg, Ellis, Backman, & Backman, 1999).

Reasons for volunteering often relate to exchange theory as a rational weighing of costs and benefits. Wilson (2000) noted that extensive social networks, multiple organizational memberships and previous volunteer experiences increased the chances for volunteering. Much volunteering is also organized around family relations, including marital and parental status.

Wilson (2000) summarized the literature of the past decade regarding demographic correlates of volunteering. For example, level of education is one of the most consistent predictors of volunteering. More-educated people tend to volunteer in traditional ways that can be easily measured. Volunteering tends to rise to its peak in middle age. Some people volunteer more when they get older because of the newly found free time, while others volunteer less because of weakened social integration. Women tend to volunteer more than men, but this difference seems to be changing as men gain more social resources. Most data suggests that people from minority groups volunteer less than white people. The less traditional factors that haven't been considered include informal volunteering and the role that the church plays for some racial groups.

Managing volunteers with a variety of backgrounds and characteristics is important--volunteers don't just show up knowing what they need to do. If volunteers are to be effective, time and energy must be invested by the organization to recruit, train, supervise and recognize these individuals. The motivations for volunteering and the ways that people volunteer have implications for how they are supervised and managed.

Volunteers and Social Capital

Most people would agree that volunteering is good for individuals as well as for the organizations and communities they volunteer for. Most people see volunteering as an exchange in which the giver and the receiver benefit in equal measure (Smith, 2001). Although volunteering is often perceived as done for altruistic reasons, a good deal of self-interest exists, especially within park and recreation departments. For example, people with disabilities who take part can aid social integration and challenge the negative stereotypes of them as dependent. For youth, volunteering can provide opportunities for self-development and risk taking. Because it exposes them to informal social controls and supervision, volunteering might be a way to keep young people out of trouble. Volunteering is an avenue for enhancing occupational achievement, especially when one considers some of the skills that can be acquired in service learning and other forms of experiential education. Further, volunteering can help the process of active aging for older adults.

Organizations provide more services through the use of volunteers. In addition, recent research by Arai (1996), Pedlar (1996), and Arai and Pedlar (1997) showed how citizen participation in planning was a form of leisure that provided various individual benefits, such as developing new skills and influencing change, as well as providing community development input that made communities better places to live. The Saguaro Seminar (2001) found that levels of civic engagement--how much residents trusted others, socialized with others and joined with others, among other measures--predicted the quality of community life and residents' happiness far better than levels of community education or income. Giving and volunteering were important dimensions for developing civic engagement and social capital. Wilson (2000) also noted that volunteering has some relationship to citizenship, antisocial behavior and socioeconomic achievement. For example, volunteers tend to be more politically active than non-volunteers.

Individuals and communities also benefit from the social capital generated through volunteering. "Social capital" is a new term used to describe the links and connections made by individuals through volunteering as well as other activities (Smith, 2001). Social capital denotes the existence of a certain set of informal values or norms shared among members of a group that permit cooperation among them (Putnam, 1996).

Social capital is found in a social relation that provides a resource for action. Hemingway (1999) underscored how social capital is found in aspects of the social structure including families, schools, bowling leagues and, we would add, volunteering. Hemingway (2001) also suggested that humans fare best when they join together and exchange. When social capital is present, individuals can act more effectively. The more that people connect with other people on a face-to-face basis within the community, the more they trust each other. The more social capital available to individuals, the more is available to society.

Putnam suggested that life is easier in a community blessed with social capital. Volunteering in a community can create social capital, and the more social capital produced, the more volunteering can be facilitated. Volunteering may create bonding social capital, which strengthens the ties that already exist, and bridging social capital, which creates ties among people unknown to one another.

Effective Volunteer Management

As with any staff member, volunteers need to be recruited, trained, supervised and recognized. The abilities that they have and the satisfactions that they desire (Silverberg et al., 1999) must be considered in working with volunteers. Further, volunteers are a complement to, not a substitute for government services. Volunteers shouldn't replace paid workers as a means to save money, but they can add value to what paid staff does.

One aspect that requires further exploration relates to the barriers that people express regarding why they don't volunteer (Kinnamon, 1998). Reasons commonly given for not volunteering include: not enough time, volunteers don't feel the organization really needs them, they don't believe they'll make a difference, they don't feel welcomed by paid staff, they fear they might fail, they lack a background in volunteering, they don't understand the mission of the organization, no one asked them or told them they were needed, structural barriers such as lack of transportation or lack of child care, volunteer tasks are too routine, training isn't offered, volunteer efforts aren't recognized and volunteers don't feel a part of the community.

Baby boomers have been trendsetters in many walks of life (Winter, 1998b). As never before, volunteers often expect professional treatment including job descriptions, high-quality training and flexibility in volunteering. Flexibility might include being able to join and leave volunteer activities frequently. Volunteer projects need to be focused and time-limited. In addition, a focus on matching volunteers to tasks they'll enjoy and are capable of doing is important.

Commitment to volunteering is one of the reasons that volunteers have been studied (Wilson, 2000). Commitment might mean the attachment to the volunteer role over time, or commitment to a particular organization or task. Volunteer burnout must be considered. Some of the same variables that predict the decision to volunteer may also relate to turnover rates. Level of satisfaction may or may not influence commitment over time. Many volunteers are looking to how they can be perceived as partners in various endeavors. Therefore, the focus should be on using their expertise to work together. Teamwork is an important dimension (Powers, 1998).

Much more needs to be learned about volunteering, such as the social correlates of volunteering, the variations in the amount and types of volunteering, the pathways that lead to volunteering and why people detach from volunteering (Wilson, 2000). Some of this research may require a broader definition of what volunteering means. Knowing more about volunteers and the many ways that a person might volunteer can help park and recreation professionals understand more about facilitating opportunities within our profession.

References

Arai, S.M. (1996). Benefits of citizen participation in a healthy communities initiative: Linking community development and empowerment. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 21, 25-44.

Arai, S.M., & Pedlar, A. (1997). Building communities through leisure: Citizen involvement in a healthy communities initiative. Journal of Leisure Research, 22, 167-182.

Becker, P.E., & Dhingra, P.H. (2001). Religious involvement and volunteering: Implications for a civil society. Sociology of Religion, 62, 315-335.

Clary, E.G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R.D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A.A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516-1530.

Hemingway, J. L. (1999). Leisure, social capital, and democratic citizenship. Journal of Leisure Research, 31, 150-165.

Hemingway, J. L. (2001). What goes around comes around: Teaching for and about social and human capital in leisure studies. Schole, 16, 1-13.

Henderson, K.A. (1981). Motivations and perceptions of volunteerism as a leisure activity. Journal of Leisure Research, 13, 208-218.

Independent Sector (2002). www.independent sector.org/programs/research/volunteer_time. html.

Independent Sector. (1990). Giving and caring in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Gallup.

Kinnamon, R. (1998). Volunteering is not what we do to be nice. Human Ecology Forum, 26(3), 8.

Pedlar, A. (1996). Community development: What does it mean for recreation and leisure? Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 21, 5-23.

Powers, M. (1998). Life cycles and volunteering. Human Ecology Forum, 26(3), 6.

Putnam, R. (1995). Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital. Journal of Democracy, 6, 65-78.

Silverberg, K., Ellis, G. D., Whitworth, P. & Kane, M. (in press). Development and evaluation of an "effects-indicator" model of volunteer satisfaction. Leisure/Loisir.

Silverberg, K., Ellis, G., Backman, K. & Backman, S. (1999). An identification and explication of a typology of public parks and recreation volunteers. World Leisure & Recreation, 41(2), 30-34.

Smith, J.D. (2001, June). Volunteering, social capital of the future? UNESCO Courier, p. 20.

Stebbins, R. (2000). Obligation as an aspect of leisure experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 32, 152-155.

Tedrick, T. & Henderson, K.A. (1989). Volunteers in leisure: A management perspective. Reston, VA: AAHPERD.

The Saguaro Seminar. (2001). Largest-ever survey on Americans' civic engagement reveals quality of life and happiness highest in socially connected communities (www.cfsv.org/community survey/results_pr.html).

Wilson, J. (2000). Volunteering. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 215-240.

Winter, M. (1998a). Redefining volunteering. Human Ecology Forum, 26(3), 9.

Winter, M. (1998b). Themes for volunteerism emerge from forum. Human Ecology Forum, 26(3), 7.

RELATED ARTICLE: Research Into Action: Programmed For Success.

The ways in which a parks and recreation organization facilitates volunteer experiences can make a big difference in the numbers of volunteers recruited and retained. Recent research indicates that the following ideas will help your volunteer program succeed:

* Enable volunteers to move in and out of the organization as their time and life situations change. Recognize the potential for short-term, goal-oriented assignments as well as for potential long-term or ongoing volunteer commitments.

* Let volunteers know that they make a genuine, important difference in people's lives and that they are needed.

* Consider carefully how to use volunteers and where they might be most effective in the organization. Match potential volunteers to specific tasks, and focus on the satisfactions that volunteers might receive doing these tasks. Some individuals want their volunteering to be long-term and serious, while others are more interested in lending a hand for a short time.

* Organization administrators should carefully consider the role of volunteers and the time needed by volunteer managers or professionals who rely heavily on volunteers for their recreation programs. Working with volunteers requires time and support.

* Focus on volunteering as a learning experience that offers an opportunity for enjoyment (i.e., leisure) while contributing to one's own social capital and quality of life.

* Volunteers must be told realistically the time commitment as well as the costs associated with volunteer service.

* Provide opportunities that will allow volunteers to participate with family members or friends, or to make new friends.

* Include volunteers who have disabilities on your roster.

* Think about volunteers as consultants, not employees. Think about teamwork as opposed to supervision. A guided approach to working with volunteers may be more useful than seeing them simply as sweat equity.

* Provide volunteers an opportunity to experience different jobs within your organization. Volunteers' motivations are varied, and different experiences can lead to more highly satisfied people who get their needs met through multiple experiences.

RELATED ARTICLE: Web Resources for Information on Volunteerism.

Volunteer Centers: www.pointsoflight.org

Action Without Borders: www.idealist.org

Energize, Inc,: www.energizeinc.com

Cornell Cooperative Extension: www.cce.cornell.edu

Corporation for National Service: www.cns.gov

National Retiree Volunteer Coalition: www.nrvc.org

Association of Junior Leagues, International: www.ajli.org

Big Brothers/Big Sisters of America: www.bbbsa.org

YMCA of the USA: www.ymca.net

YWCA of the USA: www.ywca.org

Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action: www.arnova.org

National Civic League: www.ncl.org

Independent Sector: www.independentsector.org

Service Leader: www.serviceleader.org

Virtual Volunteering Project: www.serviceleader.org

Karla Henderson, Ph.D., is professor and chair in the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill. Her current research interests have related to the meanings of enjoyment, physical activity, social capital and social inclusion. Kenneth Silverberg, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism at the University of Utah. His current research interests include motivations and job satisfaction of volunteers, organizational behavior as it relates to volunteerism, social capital and community development.

Research Update is edited by Cheryl A. Estes, Ph.D., assistant professor in recreation and leisure studies at East Carolina University in Greenville, N.C.