Gender-based income differences for physical therapist managers.Key Words: Administrators, Gender bias, Pay equity. Membership surveys conducted by the American Physical Therapy Association The American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) is a national professional organization representing more than 66,000 members. Its goal is to foster advancements in physical therapy practice, research, and education. (APTA APTA American Physical Therapy Association. ) indicate that the average wage of female full-time full-time adj. Employed for or involving a standard number of hours of working time: a full-time administrative assistant. full therapists was 74% (1990) and 59% (1993) of that of their male counterparts.[1,2] Results from these two surveys reinforced findings by Kemp n. 1. Coarse, rough hair in wool or fur, injuring its quality. et al in 1979 that female therapists earned less than male therapists.[3] The survey results also reinforced the findings of Reagan,[4] who reported that the salaries of female full-time therapists were 85% of those of male therapists in 1982 and who predicted that the salaries of female therapists would be lower than those of male therapists even after certain variables such as age were controlled. A gender-based salary difference in the profession of physical therapy is not unexpected. In the US population, the average wage of women is 74% of that of men, with a similar difference found between male- 1. See Mal-. and female-dominated professions.[5] Reasons for the wage gap have been identified as gender-biased wage discrimination[6-8] and occupational segregation segregation: see apartheid; integration. by gender (ie, more women than men work in lower-paying professions).[6,7.9,10] Only 1 out of 5 employed women is employed in a male-dominated occupation, and these occupations tend to offer higher salaries than a female-dominated occupation. Conversely con·verse 1 intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es 1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak. 2. , only 1 out of 15 employed men are employed in a female-dominated profession,(11) apparently, at least in part, because men choose not to enter professions in which the wages are not attractive.(11,12) A profession is often considered to be female-dominated if at least 70% of its members are women.(11) Physical therapy,. therefore, is a female-dominated profession (74% female in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. in 1993).(2) Some authors contend that for men to want to enter a female-dominated profession, economic opportunities need to be available as well as opportunities for advancement to managerial positions.(13) The female-dominated occupations, they argue, tend to have low average salaries.(14) When men enter a female-dominated profession, wages for both genders increase,[15] although men receive higher salaries.[10,16,17] Men are in the majority of managerial positions in the business world.[9,18-21] In elementary education elementary education or primary education Traditionally, the first stage of formal education, beginning at age 5–7 and ending at age 11–13. , nursing, and social work, a greater percentage of men, as compared with women, are in administrative positions.[17,22,23] In physical therapy, only 28% of female therapists are in managerial positions, as compared with 61% of male therapists.[2] The salary difference associated with gender in physical therapy might be partially due to the fact that a greater percentage of male therapists are in managerial positions or in private practice. In the business world, male executives earn higher salaries than female executives do,[24-26] but Rosener[27] studied both salaried and self-employed self-em·ployed adj. Earning one's livelihood directly from one's own trade or business rather than as an employee of another. self male and female executives from a variety of professions and found no salary difference associated with gender. In a study of salaried social workers, male supervisors earned higher salaries than female supervisors did.[17] Gender-based salary differences have been found in both male- and female-dominated professions when position was controlled for,[28] but Vaudrin[29] maintains that there should be no gender-based salary discrepancies in a profession consisting mostly of women where men and women have similar training and experience. Male and female physical therapists have similar ently-level educations and may have similar years of experience, but would therapists in similar positions also have similar salaries regardless of gender? Would salaries also be higher for men in management positions than for women, regardless of whether the therapists are in private practice or in salaried positions? Gender-related salary differences may also be linked to women's role conflict between career and family.[29,30] As a result of family responsibilities, women may work fewer years full-time, take more leave, and work more years part-time part-time adj. For or during less than the customary or standard time: a part-time job. part than their male counterparts do, and this in turn will affect their career advancement.[31] Therefore, the issue of longevity longevity (lŏnjĕv`ĭtē), term denoting the length or duration of the life of an animal or plant, often used to indicate an unusually long life. in a career, whether in a position or at a specific facility, needs to be considered when comparing salaries. The purpose of our study was to survey physical therapists in management roles and determine whether gender-based salary differences exist for therapists in those positions. The research questions were: 1. Do gender-based salary differences exist for self-employed individuals and for salaried individuals? 2. Do these salary differences exist regardless of area of practice? 3. Do such differences exist after adjusting for differences in hours worked, years worked full-time, leave taken from the profession, number of years at a facility, and number of years in a position? Method Subjects Questionnaires were mailed to 6,000 members of APTA. We believed that physical therapists who were administrators were most likely to be members of the Section on Administration or the Section on Private Practice. Thus, the entire membership of both sections (without duplicate DUPLICATE. The double of anything. 2. It is usually applied to agreements, letters, receipts, and the like, when two originals are made of either of them. Each copy has the same effect. names) was considered appropriate for study, and questionnaires were sent to this group. Being a member of these sections, however, did not guarantee that the respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. would be in a management position. We therefore defined a manager as someone who supervised su·per·vise tr.v. su·per·vised, su·per·vis·ing, su·per·vis·es To have the charge and direction of; superintend. [Middle English *supervisen, from Medieval Latin one or more other therapists or one or more other professionals. A total of 1,243 questionnaires (21%) were returned and used in this study. A return rate of 21% would not be unexpected. Kerlinger stated that return rates "of less than 40 or 50 percent are common."[32] Due to the low return rate, however, generalizations should be limited to the subpopulation sub·pop·u·la·tion n. A part or subdivision of a population, especially one originating from some other population: microbial subpopulations. Noun 1. of individuals in these two sections who agreed to participate and return the questionnaire. Not all of these subjects could be considered managers, and there were 969 managers when our definition of manager was applied. Questionnaire and Pilot Test The questionnaire was based on an unpublished instrument developed by Rosener et al[33] for the International Women's Forum (IWF IWF Interworking Function IWF Internet Watch Foundation IWF Independent Women's Forum IWF International Weightlifting Federation IWF Internationaler Währungsfond (German; IMF) IWF Independent Wrestling Federation ). The instrument was developed to survey administrators in a variety of professional fields. For our purposes, the demographic section of the original questionnaire was revised to include questions concerning the organization with which the therapists were associated and the types of patients treated within that setting. An anonymous pilot questionnaire was mailed to 100 therapists selected randomly from the lists of the members of the Administration and Private Practice sections. Thirty-six questionnaires were returned. The responses to the pilot questionnaire indicated that some interval response choices of 1 to 10 were not necessary for data entry purposes because actual numbers could be entered and would be more meaningful. These choices were changed to open-ended o·pen-end·ed adj. 1. Not restrained by definite limits, restrictions, or structure. 2. Allowing for or adaptable to change. 3. response choices for several demographic questions. The final questionnaire contained questions relevant to the demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. of the individual and the employing organization such as: What was your age on your last birthday? In what type of facility are you currently employed? How many of your children live with you? and Which of the following best describes the title of the position you currently hold? The questions were either open-ended or multiple choice. If the questionnaire had not been returned after 2 months, a follow-up follow-up, n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment. follow-up subsequent. follow-up plan postcard was mailed to encourage participation. Data Analysis The database was entered in duplicate into two separate files, with verification by cross-checking done after every 20 questionnaires. The file containing one data set was then transferred to the DOS SYSTAT SYSTAT is a statistics and statistical graphics software package, developed by Leland Wilkinson in the late 1970's, who was at the time an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Systat was incorporated in 1983 and grew to over 50 employees. statistical program(*) for data analyses. Descriptive statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. were calculated, including frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. , and standard errors of means. Percentages of men and women in various demographic categories were tested for statistical significance using a chi-square test chi-square test: see statistics. , and comparisons among pairs of means were made, using t tests. For the primary data analyses, respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. were assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. to subsets based on gender, type of employment (salaried and self-employed), and primary area of practice (sports-related physical therapy, orthopedics orthopedics (ôrthəpē`dĭks), medical specialty concerned with deformities, injuries, and diseases of the bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, and muscles. , neurorehabilitation, acute care, pediatrics pediatrics (pēdēă`trĭks), branch of medicine dedicated to the attainment of the best physical, emotional, and social health for infants, children, and young people generally. , academics, nursing-extended care, industrial physical therapy pain clinic, and other). Due to large differences in income between salaried and self-employed individuals, separate analyses were performed on the two groups. The mean differences in income for self-employed male and female therapists from all primary areas of practice and the mean difference in income for self-employed male and female therapists in the primary area of practice of orthopedics were tested using analyses of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. (ANCOVAs). The ANCOVA ANCOVA Analysis of Covariance was chosen as the data analysis technique because it "is typically viewed as a method of analysis that statistically adjusts for differences on the concomitant variable concomitant variable see concomitant variable. [covariate covariate predictors during the allocation of experimental units in a randomized design. ] by including it as a continuous predictor variable Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression) variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values in the analysis."[34] Because hours worked per week, years worked full-time, total months of leave from the profession, number of years at a facility, and number of years in a position were variables that could be related to income, those variables were used as covariates in these two ANCOVAs, which adjusted the mean income by gender for any differences possibly due to those covariates. The ANCOVAs then tested the adjusted mean incomes for statistical significance. Finally, the mean differences in income for salaried female and male therapists from all primary areas of practice and the mean difference in income for salaried female and male therapists in the primary areas of practice of orthopedics, acute care, sports-related physical therapy, neurorehabilitation, and nursing-extended care was tested using ANCOVAs. The same five variables were used as covariates in these six ANCOVAs, which adjusted the mean incomes by gender for any differences possibly due to those covariates. The ANCOVAs then tested the adjusted mean incomes for statistical significance. Results Characteristics Sixty-one Adj. 1. sixty-one - being one more than sixty 61, lxi cardinal - being or denoting a numerical quantity but not order; "cardinal numbers" percent of the managers were women with an average age of 39 years (SD = 7.5, range = 24-65), and 39% of the managers were men with an average age of 42, years (SD = 7.9, range = 26-65). The majority of the salaried group was female (71%), whereas the majority of the self-employed group was male (52%). Fifty-four Adj. 1. fifty-four - being four more than fifty 54, liv cardinal - being or denoting a numerical quantity but not order; "cardinal numbers" percent of the salaried managers had the title of director, whereas most of the self-employed managers had the title of owner or partner. Salaried managers, both women and men, were employed mainly in hospitals (women = 49%, men = 35%). The major area of physical therapy practice for salaried and self-employed managers was orthopedics (salaried: women = 34%, men = 43%; self-employed: women = 68%, men = 76%). Various characteristics of salaried and self-employed respondents according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. gender are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Salaried male and female respondents differed on the number of months of leave taken, then, number of years worked full-time as a therapist, and the number of hours worked per week. They did not differ on the number of years employed at a facility and the number of years in a position. Self-employed male and female respondents differed on the number of years worked full-time, the number of years employed at a facility, the number of years in a position, and the number of months of leave. For further differences, the reader is referred to Tables 1 and 2. The salaried and self-employed respondents were further subdivided based on primary area of practice and compared based on gender (Tab. 3). There were too few salaried administrators working primarily in pediatrics, industrial physical therapy, and academics to allow meaningful comparisons. For self-employed administrators, only the primary area of orthopedics had sufficient numbers for gender comparisons.
Table 1.
Profile of Respondents
Salaried
Female (n = 399)
Characteristic bar [X] SD
No. of years of experience
Physical therapist 15.6 7.7
Full-time physical therapist 13.8(a) 6.5
Member of professional association 13.4 7.7
Employment
Hours worked per week 44.5(c) 8.1
Years at facility 7.7 6.2
Years in position 5.3 4.7
Leave taken (mo) 8.8(c) 19.5
Family
No. of children 2.0 1.0
Income $107,053(a) $51,279
Salaried
Male (n = 162)
Characteristic bar [X] SD
No. of years of experience
Physical therapist 15.5 7.4
Full-time physical therapist 15.3(a) 7.4
Member of professional association 14.6 8.0
Employment
Hours worked per week 50.0(c) 12.6
Years at facility 7.6 6.4
Years in position 6.1 5.7
Leave taken (mo) 1.5(c) 6.8
Family
No. of children 2.4 1.1
Income $94,720(a) $39,537
Self-employed
Female (n=194)
Characteristic bar [X] SD
No. of years of experience
Physical therapist 16.5(a) 7.8
Full-time physical therapist 15.0(b) 7.1
Member of professional association 16.6 7.9
Employment
Hours worked per week 50.0 10.0
Years at facility 6.5(c) 4.3
Years in position 6.9(c) 5.0
Leave taken (mo) 8.4(c) 18.1
Family
No. of children 2.1 0.8
Income $123,561 $53,859
Self-employed
Male (n = 214)
Characteristic bar [X] SD
No. of years of experience
Physical therapist 18.4(a) 8.0
Full-time physical therapist 18.0(b) 7.8
Member of professional association 13.8 7.8
Employment
Hours worked per week 52.0 10.0
Years at facility 10.8(c) 7.5
Years in position 4.8(c) 6.6
Leave taken (mo) 2.4(c) 11.5
Family
No. of children 2.5 1.0
Income $128,673 $75,393
(a) P [is less than or equal to] .05. (b) P [is less than or equal to] .01. (c) P [is less than or equal to] .001.
Table 2.
Percentage of Respondents in Demographic Categories
Salaried
Female (n = 399) Male (n = 162)
Highest level of education
Certificate 3 8
BS/BA 62(a) 43(a)
MS/MPT 34(a) 48(a)
Doctorate 1 1
Married 65(a) 90(a)
Responsible for
child care arrangements 41(a) 2(a)
Funded child care
assistance at facility 15 13
Type of leave taken
Maternity 34(a) 0(a)
Dependent care 7(a) 0(a)
Disability 6(b) 1(b)
Travel 9 6
Education 5 3
Relocation 7(b) 1(b)
Unemployed spouse 7(a) 22(a)
Self-employed
Female (n = 194) Male (n = 214)
Highest level of education
Certificate 6 12
BS/BA 65 57
MS/MPT 27 28
Doctorate 2 3
Married 70(a) 86(a)
Responsible for
child care arrangements 41(a) 5(a)
Funded child care
assistance at facility 1 2
Type of leave taken
Maternity 35(a) 0(a)
Dependent care 5(a) 0(a)
Disability 8(b) 1(b)
Travel 10 6
Education 6 6
Relocation 6(b) 1(b)
Unemployed spouse 5(a) 27(a)
(a) P [is less than or equal to] .001. (b) P [is less than or equal to]. 01. Table 3. Sample Sizes, Means, and Results of Tests of Significance for Salaried and Self-employed by Primary Area of Practice
Total Leave
(m)
Area of Practice N [bar] X SD
Salaried
Sports physical therapy
Female 11 0.73 1.3
Male 16 0.19 0.5
Orthopedics
Female 137 7.4(a) 17.2
Male 69 2.2(a) 9.4
Neurorehabilitation
Female 50 6.1 14.2
Male 12 0.83 2.3
Acute Core
Female 107 11.5(a) 23.8
Male 31 1.6(a) 6.0
Extended care/nursing home
Female 23 13.1 25.2
Male 9 0.0 0.0
Self-employed
Orthopedics
Female 131 8.1 15.1
Male 163 1.8 7.8
Years
Hours/Week Full-time
Area of Practice [bar] X SD bar [X] SD
Salaried
Sports physical therapy
Female 49.5 12.1 9.7(a) 4.9
Male 47.6 14.1 14.6(a) 5.9
Orthopedics
Female 45.3 6.6 12.6(a) 5.4
Male 53.0 13.1 14.5(a) 5.7
Neurorehabilitation
Female 42.3 9.9 13.9(a) 6.9
Male 46.8 11.5 18.9(a) 8.4
Acute Core
Female 44.0(a) 7.5 15.5 6.8
Male 48.3(a) 8.0 17.1 9.9
Extended care/nursing home
Female 45.9 9.5 13.2 6.7
Male 52.4 13.0 12.8 5.6
Self-employed
Orthopedics
Female 49.7 9.6 15.3 7.2
Male 51.7 9.6 17.3 7.2
Years at Years in
Facility Position
Area of Practice bar [X] SD bar [X] SD
Salaried
Sports physical therapy
Female 6.9 3.7 5.5 3.1
Male 6.5 4.5 5.9 4.6
Orthopedics
Female 6.9 5.2 5.0 4.1
Male 7.6 5.4 6.2 5.2
Neurorehabilitation
Female 6.8 5.9 4.1 4.3
Male 9.5 9.3 5.7 4.1
Acute Core
Female 10.1 6.9 6.2 4.9
Male 10.3 8.4 8.4 8.0
Extended care/nursing home
Female 5.6 6.4 5.4 5.7
Male 4.0 2.9 3.6 2.8
Self-employed
Orthopedics
Female 7.0(b) 4.7 7.4(c) 5.5
Male 10.6 7.2 9.6(c) 6.2
(a) P [is less than or equal to] .05. (b) P [is less than or equal to] .001. (c) P [is less than or equal to] .01. Overall, the longer the respondents had been in a position (r = .29, P = .001), the longer they had been employed at a facility (r = .24, P = .001), and the longer they had worked full-time (r = .20, P = .001), the greater their salaries were. In addition, the more hours the respondents worked per week (r = .2 1, P = .001) and the fewer months of leave taken from the profession (r = -.085, P = .008), the greater their salaries were. Family and Dependent Care Considerations Questions about families and dependent care were included in the survey questionnaire to determine the differences, if any, between the female and male managers because these factors are related to differences in the number of years worked full-time and the amount of leave taken from the profession. The results are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Fewer women than men were married. Women who had children had responsibility for child care arrangements, and 90% had worked full-time at some point while their children were growing up. Maternity MATERNITY. The state or condition of a mother. 2. It is either legitimate or natural. The former is the condition of the mother who has given birth to legitimate children, while the latter is the condition of her who has given birth to illegitimate children. was the main reason given by female respondents for taking leave from the profession. Sixty-eight percent of salaried female managers had taken an average of 9 months of leave compared with 11% of salaried male managers, for an average of 1.5 months of leave. Sixty-six Adj. 1. sixty-six - being six more than sixty 66, lxvi cardinal - being or denoting a numerical quantity but not order; "cardinal numbers" percent of self-employed women had taken an average of 8.4 months of leave compared with 21% of self-employed men who took an average of 2.4 months of leave. Income Findings Average salaries differed between female and male managers for salaried therapists as well as for self-employed therapists. Salaried and self-employed female therapists reported making 83% and 67%, respectively, of the male therapists' reported salaries (Tab. 4). Variables used as covariates in the analysis were number of hours worked per week, number of years worked full-time, total months of leave from the profession, number of years at a facility, and number of years in a position.(3,4,8,18) Table 4. Results of Analysis of Covariance for Gender-Based Salary Differences
Unadjusted Means
Female
Area of Practice N bar [X] SE
Self-employed 408 $72,591 $2,326
Orthopedics 294 $75,661 $2,996
Salaried 561 $58,A24 $1,427
Acute care 138 $54,183 $ 778
Sports physical therapy 27 $59,273 $3,913
Orthopedics 206 $64,906 $3,864
Neurorehabilitation 62 $55,370 $1,229
Extended care/nursing home 32 $61,478 $4,286
Unadjusted Means
Male
Area of Practice bar [X] SE P
Self-employed $107,642 $ 4,931 .001
Orthopedics $109,033 $ 5,681 .001
Salaried $ 70,522 $ 2 334 .001
Acute care $ 65,112 $ 4,927 .001
Sports physical therapy $ 62,500 $ 4,92A .638
Orthopedics $ 74,725 $ 3,621 .105
Neurorehabilitation $ 59,333 $ 9,4A2 .168
Extended care/nursing home $ 84,556 $10,842 .022
Adjusted Means
Female
Area of Practice bar [X] SE
Self-employed $78,500 $4,142
Orthopedics $81,560 $5,402
Salaried $59,711 $1,427
Acute care $55,039 $1,333
Sports physical therapy $62,553 $4,920
Orthopedics $67,169 $3,477
Neurorehabilitation $55,838 $1,141
Extended care/nursing home $64,158 $3,761
Adjusted Means
Male
Area of Practice bar [X] SE P
Self-employed $101,944 $3,993 .001
Orthopedics $104,047 $4,802 .003
Salaried $ 67,353 $2,298 .006
Acute care $ 62,161 $2,575 .018
Sports physical therapy $ 60,244 $3,991 .733
Orthopedics $ 70,233 $5,064 .633
Neurorehabilitation $ 57,382 $2,426 .575
Extended care/nursing home $ 77,708 $6,223 .083
Table 4 shows the results of an ANCOVA using gender as the independent variable and the set of five variables as covariates for both salaried and self-employed managers. After controlling for these five variables, a gender-related salary difference was evident for both the salaried and self-employed therapists. Salaried female managers earned 89% of the adjusted salary of their male counterparts. Self-employed female managers earned only 77% of the adjusted salary of their male counterparts. The salaried and self-employed groups were further subdivided by*primary area of practice, and the results of similar ANCOVAs are shown in Table 4. Self-employed men whose primary area was orthopedic orthopedic /or·tho·pe·dic/ (-pe´dik) pertaining to the correction of deformities of the musculoskeletal system; pertaining to orthopedics. physical therapy had greater salaries than their female counterparts did, even when salaries were adjusted for the set of five covariates. For the salaried managers, the adjusted salary differed by gender only for those therapists who mainly practiced in acute care, with women earning only 83% of what men earned. No differences were noted for therapists practicing in sports physical therapy, orthopedics, neurorehabilitation, and extended care. Discussion The percentage of female administrators in the salaried group was similar to the proportion of women in the profession (71% compared with 74%), but female therapists comprised only 48% of the self-employed group. The results of this study reinforce the results of the 1990 and 1993 APTA surveys,(1,2) the 1979 study by Kemp et al,(3) and the 1982 study by Reagan,(4) that a difference exists between salaries for female and male physical therapists. In 1982, Reagan(4) advised female physical therapists to seek more administrative positions to try to even out salary differences, but we found that for physical therapist administrators who presumably pre·sum·a·ble adj. That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. are in the higher salaried positions and have similar credentials CREDENTIALS, international law. The instruments which authorize and establish a public minister in his character with the state or prince to whom they are addressed. If the state or prince receive the minister, he can be received only in the quality attributed to him in his credentials. , there is still a gender-related salary difference. The self-employed and salaried female therapists in our study made 77% and 89%, respectively, of the average incomes of their male counterparts. These salary differences are similar to the gender-based salary difference for the general population of the United States,(5) less than the 66% difference found in a recent Korn/Ferry Korn/Ferry International, headquartered in Los Angeles and founded in 1969 by Lester Korn and Richard Ferry, is the world's largest executive search firm with 70 offices in North America, Europe, Asia/Pacific, Latin America, the Middle East and South Africa. International study of executives,(25) and different from the results of Rosener,(27) who found no difference in salary by gender in a group of female and male executives from many varied professions. The gender-related salary difference for administrators in the female-dominated profession of physical therapy could be attributed to the fact that more male administrators are in higher-paying specialties or in private practice. The 1979 study by Kemp et al(3) did not address this issue because only 3% of the female therapists in that study were self-employed compared with 24% of the male therapists. In the 1982 study by Reagan,(4) 70% of the therapists were salaried and 73% of those therapists were women, whereas men comprised the majority of the self-employed group (62%). In our study, 57% of the male respondents were self-employed, as compared with only 33% of the female respondents. We examined responses by area of practice and found that there was no difference in income between male and female salaried therapists in orthopedics but that self-employed men in orthopedics made more than their female counterparts. Salary differences were not evident for the salaried therapists in the practice areas of sports physical therapy, orthopedics, neurorehabilitation, and extended care. In the specialty of acute care, male salaried therapists earned more than the female respondents did. Because our study indicated that gender-related salary differences exist for managers in some specialty areas, the issue of salary differences based on area of practice warrants further investigation. Some researchers[29,30] have determined that the relationship of work and family life affects salary. Salary can be negatively affected for women if they take leave or work part-time for a number of years, and salary can be affected positively for men if they are married and have a nonworking spouse spouse A legal marriage partner as defined by state law .[30,35] Some experts believe that male administrators with fewer family responsibilities have more time to devote to their careers.[35] Thus, the nonworking wife contributes as a career resource for her spouse.[35] Kemp et al,[3] who found that female supervisors earned 25% less than male supervisors earned, proposed that employers might perceive that men need higher salaries as heads of families. Kemp and colleagues' assumption was that men have more dependents and financial responsibilities than women do. In our study, more male administrators were married, had more children on average, and had worked full-time for more years compared with female administrators. The reason the men in our study had worked more years full-time was related to child care and leaves of absence taken by female administrators (averages of 8.8 and 8.4 months out of averages of 13.8 and 15 years of full-time employment for salaried and self-employed respondents, respectively). Ninety percent of the female respondents, however, had worked full-time while their children were growing up. This finding indicated to us that they had not given up tenure on a job to work part-time because of child care responsibilities. We found gender-related differences in salaries of the physical therapists. This finding is in contrast to Rosener and colleagues' finding of no gender-related differences in salaries.[33] The difference in results could be due to contrasts in the characteristics of female administrators in physical therapy and the female executives in the IWF study. Rosener et al studied a population of members of the IWF who held leadership positions in a variety of careers (eg, authors, journal editors) and who had an average annual income of $140,000. The female physical therapists in our study made half as much income, were much younger, and had worked in their organizations fewer years compared with the women in the IWF study. Limitations Although all members of the Administration and Private Practice sections were surveyed, there was a 21% return rate. A shorter time period for sending the follow-up postcard might have encouraged a greater response. Nevertheless, the sample size of 969 was quite large and provided more extensive information on the income of physical therapist administrators than previously cited works did. The variables used in the study are self-reported data, and their accuracy is dependent on the subject's ability to remember and report information such as income and number of years in the profession. In addition, only those variables that seemed to have an effect on income, based on other literature and on correlations to salary, were used in the ANCOVAs. The educational level A professional versus postprofessional degree was not determined, so educational level could not be used as a covariate. The validity of our finding that the average salary of the female therapists was less than that of the male therapists should be considered in light of our low response rate and the sample size. When therapists were grouped into various categories for comparisons, the small sample sizes of the subgroups further limited the generalizability of our findings to these subgroups. Until a similar survey with a response rate of at least 21% produces an average salary for female therapists that is equitable equitable adj. 1) just, based on fairness and not legal technicalities. 2) refers to positive remedies (orders to do something, not money damages) employed by the courts to solve disputes or give relief. (See: equity) EQUITABLE. to the average salary for male therapists, the average salary for female therapists will be viewed as being lower than the average salary for male therapists. Summary and Conclusions Our study revealed that after adjusting for differences in hours worked per week, years worked full-time, total months of leave from the profession, number of years at a facility, and number of years in a position, respondents who were salaried female managers in physical therapy still earned less than respondents who were salaried male managers did. The self-employed male respondents earned more than the self-employed female respondents did after adjusting for differences in the same set of covariables. The gender-based salary difference in the profession in general may not be due to differences in hours worked per week, years worked full-time, total months of leave from the profession, number of years at a facility, or number of years in a position. We did not investigate all primary areas of practice. The self-employed male therapists in our study whose practices were in orthopedics had higher incomes than their female counterparts did, but the average incomes of salaried male and female therapists in orthopedics were not different. Salaried male respondents who practiced primarily in acute care earned more than their female counterparts did. These results indicate that primary areas of practice need further scrutiny to determine whether a specialty area should be considered gendersegregated and whether gender-based salary differences exist within or among specialty areas. We did not study all factors that might contribute to gender-based salary differences. Differences in leadership qualities and career commitment in addition to work and family conflict also may affect salary.[15,27] In the absence of reasons for the salary differences, there may indeed be a bias on the part of the employers toward higher compensation for male managers than for female managers.[8] However, those female managers in private practice, where they presumably have some control over their own salaries, earned less than their male counterparts did. Further investigation into reasons for this salary discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. between male and female managers in private practice is clearly indicated. These gender-based salary differences may be due to a wide variety of factors. Many of these factors are not discussed in the gender-based salary inequity literature, but they might include lifestyles, value judgments, style of practice, spending patterns of the individual, or even bookkeeping bookkeeping, maintenance of systematic and convenient records of money transactions in order to show the condition of a business enterprise. The essential purpose of bookkeeping is to reveal the amounts and sources of the losses and profits for any given period. and accounting procedures of private practices. (*) SYSTAT Inc, 1800 Sherman Sherman, city (1990 pop. 31,601), seat of Grayson co., N Tex., near the Red River; inc. 1858. Originally on a stagecoach route, it is a highway and railroad junction. Manufactures include electronic equipment, processed foods, military equipment, and metal products. Ave AVE Avenue AVE Average AVE Alta Velocidad Espanola (train between Madrid and Seville) AVE Alta Velocidad Española (Spanish: High Speed Train) AVE Audio Video Entertainment AVE Advertising Value Equivalent , Evanston Evanston, residential city (1990 pop. 73,233), Cook co., NE Ill., on Lake Michigan; settled 1826, inc. 1892. A largely residential suburb north of Chicago, Evanston has businesses and manufactures goods such as books and published documents, paper, paint, chemicals, , IL 60201. References [1.] 1990 Active Membership Profile Report. Alexandria Alexandria, city, Egypt Alexandria, Arabic Al Iskandariyah, city (1996 pop. 3,328,196), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is at the western extremity of the Nile River delta, situated on a narrow isthmus between the sea and Lake Mareotis (Maryut). , Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1991. [2.] 1993 Active Membership Profile Report. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1994. [3.] Kemp NI, Scholz Scholz is a German surname.
1 City (1990 pop. 32,387), seat of Seminole co., central Fla., on Lake Monroe and the St. Johns River; inc. 1877. It is an agricultural center where citrus fruit and vegetables are processed. TL, Shepard Shep·ard , Alan Bartlett, Jr. 1923-1998. American astronaut who on a 15-minute flight on May 5, 1961, became the first American in space. He also commanded the Apollo 14 mission to the moon (1971). Noun 1. KF. Salary and status differences between male and female physical therapists. Phys Ther. 1979;59:1095-1101. [4.] Reagan BB. Differences in 1982 income of female and male physical therapists. In: Resource Guide. Women in Physical Therapy. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1986:171-205. [5.] US Department of Labor. Employment and Earnings, January January: see month. 1992. Washington Washington, town, England Washington, town (1991 pop. 48,856), Sunderland metropolitan district, NE England. Washington was designated one of the new towns in 1964 to alleviate overpopulation in the Tyneside-Wearside area. , DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables. ; 1992. [6.] Betz Betz may refer to:
New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NY. Academic Press Inc; 1987. [7.] Fox MF, Hesse-Biber S. Women at Work. Palo Alto Palo Alto, city, California Palo Alto (păl`ō ăl`tō), city (1990 pop. 55,900), Santa Clara co., W Calif.; inc. 1894. Although primarily residential, Palo Alto has aerospace, electronics, and advanced research industries. , Calif. Mayfield Mayfield, city (1990 pop. 9,935), seat of Graves co., SW Ky., in an area of farms and clay deposits; founded 1823. It is an agricultural trade center with a tobacco market. Publishing Co; 1984:13-21, 36-39. [8.] Pezzullo TR, Brittingham BE. The assessment of salary equity: a Brittingham BE, eds. Salary Equity. Lexington, Mass: Lexington Books; 1979:1-11. [9.] Ragins BR, Sandstrom E. Gender and power in organizations: longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. perspective. Psychol Bull. 1989;105:51-88. [10.] Rozier CK. Nurse executive characteristics. Nursing Management 1996;27(12):33-37. [11.] Jacobs JA. Men in female-dominated fields: trends and turnover. In: Williams C, ed. Doing Women's Work: Men in Nontraditional Occupations. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications This article or section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article. Inc; 1993:49-63. [12.] Cassidy ML. Gender differences in work-related status within selected female and male-dominated occupations. Current Research on Occupations and Professions. 1990;5:111-129. [13.] Bradley H. Across the great divide: the entry of men into "women's jobs." In: Williams C, ed. Doing Women's Work: Men in Nontraditional Occupations. Newbury Park, Calif. Sage Publications Inc; 1993:10-27. [14.] Powell GN. Women and Men in Management. Newbury Park, Calif. Sage Publications Inc; 1988:208. [15.] England P, Herbert MS. The pay of men in "female" occupations: Is comparable worth only for women? In: Williams C, ed. Doing Women's Work: Men in Nontraditional Occupations. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications Inc; 1993:28-47. [16.] Detlefsen EG, Olson JE, Frieze frieze, in architecture, the member of an entablature between the architrave and the cornice or any horizontal band used for decorative purposes. In the first type the Doric frieze alternates the metope and the triglyph; that of the other orders is plain or IH. Women and librarians This is a list of people who have practised as a librarian and are well-known, either for their contributions to the library profession or primarily in some other field. : still too far behind. Library journal. March 1991: 37-42. [17.] Fanshel D. Status differentials: men and women in social work. Soc Work. November 1976:448-454. [18.] Bowker JE, Hinkle Hin·kle , Beatrice Moses 1874-1953. American psychiatrist who cofounded the first psychotherapy clinic in the United States (1908). DE, Worrier WM. Do women aspire to aspire to verb aim for, desire, pursue, hope for, long for, crave, seek out, wish for, dream about, yearn for, hunger for, hanker after, be eager for, set your heart on, set your sights on, be ambitious for the same administrative positions as men? Education Administration. 1983; 19 (2): 64-81. [19.] Bartol KM, Martin DC. Managerial motivation among MBA MBA abbr. Master of Business Administration Noun 1. MBA - a master's degree in business Master in Business, Master in Business Administration students: a longitudinal assessment. Journal of Occupational Psychology. 1987;60:1-12. [20.] Empowering Women in Business. Washington, DC: Feminist Majority Foundation The Feminist Majority Foundation (FMF) is a feminist non-profit organization dedicated to “women’s equality, reproductive health and non-violence”[1]. ; 1991. [21.] Federal Glass Griling Commission. Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Capital. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 1995:13, 98. [22.] Greenglass ER, Burke The name Burke (from Irish Gaelic de Burca, of Norman origin). In English the meaning of the name Burke is "fortified hill." See also Berkley. Places Australia
[23.] Gans JE. Men's career advantages in nursing: the principle of the peter. Current Research on Occupations and Professions. 1987;4:181-198. [24.] Fitzpatrick R, Cole ME. Some Characteristics of Female and Male Managers. Pittsburgh, Pa: Psychological Service of Pittsburgh; 1977. [25.] Kom/Ferry International, UCLA UCLA University of California at Los Angeles UCLA University Center for Learning Assistance (Illinois State University) UCLA University of Carrollton, TX and Lower Addison, TX Anderson Anderson, river, Canada Anderson, river, c.465 mi (750 km) long, rising in several lakes in N central Northwest Territories, Canada. It meanders north and west before receiving the Carnwath River and flowing north to Liverpool Bay, an arm of the Arctic Graduate School of Management. Decade of the Executive Woman. Los Angeles Los Angeles (lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. , Calif. Korn/Ferry International; 1993. [26.] Treiman DJ, Hartman HI. Women, Work, and Wages. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1981:44-67. [27.] Rosener JB. Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review Harvard Business Review is a general management magazine published since 1922 by Harvard Business School Publishing, owned by the Harvard Business School. A monthly research-based magazine written for business practitioners, it claims a high ranking business readership and . 1990;68(6):119-125. [28.] Major B. Women and entitlement An individual's right to receive a value or benefit provided by law. Commonly recognized entitlements are benefits, such as those provided by Social Security or Workers' Compensation. . Women and Therapy. 1987;6(3):3-19. [29.] Vaudrin DM. Factors Contributing to the Upward Mobility upward mobility n. The state of being upwardly mobile. upward mobility Noun movement from a lower to a higher economic and social status of Managers, and an Exploratory Study of Mentoring and Other Influential Relationships. Seattle, Wash: Seattle University History Seattle University was founded by Father Victor Garrand and Father Adrian Sweere in downtown Seattle, and has served as both a high school and college. In 1893, construction started on the First Hill campus. ; 1983. Doctoral thesis. [30.] O'Connell L, Betz M, Kurth S Kurth may refer to:
[31.] Women in Corporate Leadership: Progress and Prospects. New York, NY Catalyst; 1996:44-53. [32.] Kerlinger FN. Foundations of Behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. Research. New York, NY. Holt holt n. Archaic A wood or grove; a copse. [Middle English, from Old English.] holt Noun the lair of an otter [from , Rinehart and Winston, Inc; 1986:380. [33.] Rosener JB, McAllister DJ, Stephens GK. Leadership Study: International Women's Forum. Irvine, Calif. University of California The University of California has a combined student body of more than 191,000 students, over 1,340,000 living alumni, and a combined systemwide and campus endowment of just over $7.3 billion (8th largest in the United States). at Irvine, Graduate School of Management; 1990. [34.] Marwell SE, Delaney HD. Designing Experiments and Analyzing Data. Belmont, Calif. Wadsworth Publishing Co; 1990:355. [35.] Pfeffer J, Ross Ross , Sir Ronald 1857-1932. British physician. He won a 1902 Nobel Prize for proving that malaria is transmitted to humans by the bite of the mosquito. J. The effects of marriage Effects of marriage is a legal term of art used to describe all of the rights and obligations that individuals may be subject and entitled to if they are in a common-law marriage, an annulled marriage, domestic partnership or a civil union. and a working wife on occupational and wage attainment. Administrative Science Quarterly Administrative Science Quarterly, founded in 1956, is one of the most eminent academic journals in the field of organizational studies. It is published by Cornell University. People claimed to have been involved as founders include James D. . 1982;27:66-80. CK Rozier, PhD, PT, is Professor and Dean of the School of Physical Therapy, Texas Woman's University Texas Woman's University, main campus at Denton; state supported; primarily for women; est. 1901. It is the largest state-supported university for women in the country. , Box 425766, Denton, TX 76204 (USA) (a_rozier@twu.edu). Address all correspondence to Dr Rozier. BL Hamilton Hamilton, city, Bermuda Hamilton, city (1990 est. pop. 3,100), capital of Bermuda, on Bermuda Island. It is a port at the head of Great Sound, a huge lagoon and deepwater harbor protected by coral reefs. , PhD, is Professor, Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Texas Woman's University. MS Hersh-Cochran, PhD, is Cornaro Professor, Department of Business and Economics, Texas Woman's University. This study was reviewed by the Human Subjects Review Committee at Texas Woman's University and was exempted from formal approval. |
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