Gender poverty disparity in US cities: evidence exonerating female-headed families.Utilizing data from the 2000 Census, this study examines the impact of family composition, education, and labor force factors on the difference between female and male poverty rates in the 70 largest U.S. cities. A stepwise regression In statistics, stepwise regression includes regression models in which the choice of predictive variables is carried out by an automatic procedure.[1][2][3] analysis indicates that 41% of the difference between female and male poverty rates can be explained by the percent of women in the three US Bureau of Labor Statistic's lowest wage occupations. There was no evidence of a unique impact from tire percentage of female headed families in each city, or the study's other independent variables, on the gender poverty gap, with the exception of their contribution through the proportion of females in the lowest wage occupations. This study provides empirical support for the likely ineffectiveness of TANF TANF Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (previously known as AFDC) initiatives promoting employment and marriage for alleviating female poverty. In addition, the study found important non-random geographic variations in the difference between cities with the highest and lowest gender disparity dis·par·i·ty n. pl. dis·par·i·ties 1. The condition or fact of being unequal, as in age, rank, or degree; difference: "narrow the economic disparities among regions and industries" in poverty rates. Only one of the ten US cities with the highest rankings in gender poverty disparity is located west of the Mississippi River Mississippi River River, central U.S. It rises at Lake Itasca in Minnesota and flows south, meeting its major tributaries, the Missouri and the Ohio rivers, about halfway along its journey to the Gulf of Mexico. . Key words: gender, poverty, low-wage occupations, family composition, female-headed families Introduction Throughout history, female poverty rates have surpassed male poverty rates in virtually every society (Casper, McLanahan, & Garfinkel, 1994). Following Diana Pearce's (1978) conceptualization con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: of the "feminization of poverty The feminization of poverty is a phenomenon that has been observed in the United States since 1970 as female headed households accounted for a growing proportion of those below the poverty line. ," researchers began in earnest to explore multiple dimensions of the gender disparities in poverty rates. In light of the steady gains in women's education and workforce participation, once again there has been renewed interest in the endurance of this gender poverty gap, as it persists into the modern post-industrial era (Chirstopher, England, Smeeding & Phillips, 2002; Bianchi,1999; McLanahan & Kelley, 1999). Comparative studies, among technologically advanced western countries, consistently find the chasm between female and male poverty rates is widest in the U.S. (Daly & Rake rake, farm implement consisting of a row of straight or curved teeth of metal or wood attached to a bar or frame. It is used for gathering hay or grain into piles; for clearing fields, lawns, and yards; and for stirring and spreading soil. , 2003; Christopher et al, 2002). Defining poverty as total cash income below half the median income in each respective country, single females were almost twice as likely as single males to live in poverty in the US (Christopher et al, 2002). In addition, this relatively high female poverty risk was maintained during a period when both females and males were benefiting (Bianchi's, 1999) from the eight consecutive years, between 1993 and 2000, of steadily declining US poverty rates (National Poverty Center, 2003). Whereas this previous research examined gender inequality between nations, the current study is a within group examination of gender poverty disparity within the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Specifically, this study determines in which of the of the seventy largest U.S. cities the gender disparity in poverty rates is the greatest; and the factors contributing to such disparity. The US Census, which uses a comparatively conservative absolute poverty measure, reported in the last decennial de·cen·ni·al adj. 1. Relating to or lasting for ten years. 2. Occurring every ten years. n. A tenth anniversary. census that overall 17% of females, compared to 13% of males, age 18 to 64 living in the largest US cities, had incomes below the poverty threshold The poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living. In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed (Bangs, Lichtenwalter, Hughes, Anthou & Shorter, 2003). Likewise, 36% of female headed families with children under age 18, compared to 21% of male headed families with children, in the largest 70 cities, had incomes below the poverty thresholds (Bangs et al, 2003). The most recent national poverty statistics indicate poverty has increased again in 2001 and 2002 (American Community Survey The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. , 2003; Parrott, 2003). Severe poverty, income below 50% of the poverty line, increased for nearly 1.5 million people between 2000 and 2002, and has returned to its 1996-1997 levels (Fremstad, 2004). Therefore, it is likely that there has been a further widening in the gender poverty gap since the last census. Increasing our understanding of the factors contributing to the disproportionately high poverty rates among females is critical for formulating effective solutions. The differences between female and male poverty rates are fundamentally attributed to two factors, both of which influenced the historic Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA PRWORA Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 PRWORA Personal Responsibility Work Opportunities Reconciliation Act ) and continue to inform the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) reauthorization debates. The first factor is the historical gender differences in paid and unpaid labor which direct much of women's energies toward childrearing, care-giving and unpaid domestic work (Crittenden, 2001; Folbre, 2001). In addressing this, TANF added 30 hours of weekly work requirements to welfare recipient's domestic responsibilities while providing modest levels of childcare assistance (U.S. Congress, 1996). The second factor believed to contribute to female poverty is the demographic shift toward single female-headed families (Brown, 1997; Goldberg & Kremen, 1990; McLanahan & Kelley, 1999; Murray, 1994; Waite & Gallagher, 2000). Three out of four of PRWORA goals for reforming poor women's welfare provisions were related to the promotion of marriage and prevention of non-marital pregnancies (U.S. Congress, 1996). Furthermore, current TANF reauthorization proposals from Congress and the Bush Administration divert over $1.5 billion in TANF work supports to marriage promotion activities (Parke, 2004; Pear & Kirkpatrick, 2004; White House, 2002). The purpose of the current investigation is to contribute to research that begins to distinguish between the unique contributions of women's paid labor and family composition to the gender differences in poverty rates. Although access to labor market labor market A place where labor is exchanged for wages; an LM is defined by geography, education and technical expertise, occupation, licensure or certification requirements, and job experience earnings serves as the primary determinant determinant, a polynomial expression that is inherent in the entries of a square matrix. The size n of the square matrix, as determined from the number of entries in any row or column, is called the order of the determinant. of poverty status, the workplace itself is a powerful stratifying institution with many factors operating against women and mothers (Crittenden, 2001; Budig & England, 2001; Waldfogel, 1998). Occupational sex-typing and within occupation status segregation and all manner of other gendered wage differentials wage differential n → diferencia salarial wage differential n → éventail m des salaires wage differential wage n and discriminatory dis·crim·i·na·to·ry adj. 1. Marked by or showing prejudice; biased. 2. Making distinctions. dis·crim practices contribute to the creation of a gender wage gap (Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , 2000). Therefore, despite women's increased education and participation in the waged labor market, females employed full-time, full-year, with education attainment similar to that of males, still obtain work in different types of jobs and/or at different rates of pay (Figart & Lapidus, 1995; King, 2001; Levine, 2001). Accordingly, the influences of these labor dynamics on female's higher risk of poverty are captured in the current study through measures of gender wage inequality, and low-wage occupational sex-segregation, as well as through measures of general female labor force participation. Occupational sex-segregation, which theoretically may be influenced by both demand and supply side considerations (Redskin, 1993), was of particular interest to the current study. Much of the recent scholarship on segmented labor market theory strongly suggests determinants related to a cultural devaluation devaluation, decreasing the value of one nation's currency relative to gold or the currencies of other nations. It is usually undertaken as a means of correcting a deficit in the balance of payments. of female labor, bias wage structures, and gendered work organizations (England, 1992; England, Hermsen & Cotter cot·ter n. 1. A bolt, wedge, key, or pin inserted through a slot in order to hold parts together. 2. A cotter pin. [Origin unknown. , 2000; Grube-Farrell, 2002; Tomaskovic-Devy & Skaggs, 2002). Therefore, utilizing data from the 2000 Census, this study examines how much of the difference between female and male poverty rates, in the 70 largest U.S. cities, is explained by the prevalence of single female-headed families, as well as gender differences in education and labor related variables. Data The U.S. Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United States Bureau of the Census , with its budget of $1.4 billion dollars, is an unparalleled source of aggregate data on the 281.4 million people in the United States (Cortright and Reamer reamer Rotary cutting tool of cylindrical or conical shape, used for enlarging and finishing to accurate dimensions holes that have been drilled, bored, or cored. A reamer cannot be used to start a hole. , 1998). The current study utilizes census data from the year 2000 to examine women and men's poverty, education and labor, as presented by the Pittsburgh Women's Benchmark Report (Bangs et al, 2003). The University of Pittsburgh Center for Social and Urban Research prepared this Benchmark Report to assess the socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. of females relative to males in the 70 most populated pop·u·late tr.v. pop·u·lat·ed, pop·u·lat·ing, pop·u·lates 1. To supply with inhabitants, as by colonization; people. 2. U.S. cities. While the highest and lowest ranked cities on variables relevant to the current study are presented in this article, readers are referred to the original report with it's ranking tables of all 70 cities for a comprehensive picture of important regional differences. The aggregate level labor and poverty data utilized in this inquiry is appropriate for the selected unit of analysis, which is the city. The poverty and education variables pertain per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. only to working age adults. Occupation and earnings, by definition, are limited to employed individuals. Therefore, children and retirees have been eliminated from the study's variables. Methods The 70 most populated U.S. cities are ranked highest to lowest on each of the study's central variables. As appropriate, a within city female/male ratio on the variables were calculated for each of the 70 cities. These simple gender ratios are such that 1.00 represents female and male equality, and less than 1.00 indicates women lag behind men on the measure in that city. A ratio greater than 1.00 indicates that females surpass males on that specific indicator in the city. These gender ratios for each city were then utilized in between-city comparisons, which ranked gender disparities among the 70 largest US cities. The descriptive analysis of the 70 city rankings is followed by a bivariate bi·var·i·ate adj. Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution. Adj. 1. exploration of the relationships among the study's central variables. Then, a stepwise stepwise incremental; additional information is added at each step. stepwise multiple regression used when a large number of possible explanatory variables are available and there is difficulty interpreting the partial regression multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analysis is conducted to determine how much of a city's female/male poverty ratio for working age adults can be explained by the study's independent variables. Descriptive Statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. Poverty The US Census' poverty criteria vary by the size, and adult/child composition, of each family. For example, the 2000 US Census poverty threshold was $8,794 for an individual and $13,874 for an individual with two related children under age 18. Poverty status is based upon the respondents' income from the preceding calendar year, so the 2000 Census' poverty statistics are based on the respondent's 1999 income. In addition, there is a presumption A conclusion made as to the existence or nonexistence of a fact that must be drawn from other evidence that is admitted and proven to be true. A Rule of Law. If certain facts are established, a judge or jury must assume another fact that the law recognizes as a logical of shared family resources, so a married couple's poverty status is based upon the income of both spouses (U.S. Census, 2000). Therefore, wives and husbands are assigned the same poverty status, which reflects an underlying assumption that all married women benefit from their husband's income. The proportion of females age 18-64 with incomes below the US Census poverty thresholds are higher that that of males in every major US city. The mean for the percent of females with incomes below poverty in the largest 70 US cities was 17%. Virginia Beach Virginia Beach, resort city (1990 pop. 393,069), independent and in no county, SE Va., on the Atlantic coast; inc. 1906. In 1963, Princess Anne co. and the former small town of Virginia Beach were merged, giving the present city an area of 302 sq mi (782 sq km). VA has the highest gender poverty disparity at 1.76 (7.2% females below poverty/4.1% males below poverty), although this city's general poverty rates are well below the national mean. San Francisco San Francisco (săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden CA's 1.07 (11.3% females below poverty/10.6% males below poverty) is the lowest female/male poverty ratio among the 70 largest US cities. See Tables 2 and 3. Education All the education variables utilized in the analysis pertain to pertain to verb relate to, concern, refer to, regard, be part of, belong to, apply to, bear on, befit, be relevant to, be appropriate to, appertain to the population age 18 to 64. Overall, working age females in the 70 largest U.S. cities surpass males in their rate of high school completion, and equal the male rate of attaining a bachelor degree or higher. For the purpose of this study, college completion is the central variable. Seattle has the highest percentage of working age females with a bachelor degree or higher (48.1%) and Santa Ana Santa Ana, city, El Salvador Santa Ana (sän'tä ä`nä), city (1993 pop. 129,873), W El Salvador. It is the second largest city in the country and the commercial and processing center for a sugarcane, coffee, and cattle region. , CA has the lowest (7.5%). The 70-city mean for the percent of 18 to 64 year olds awarded a bachelor degree or higher is 24% for both genders. The percentage of females with at least a bachelor degree is equal to or greater than that of males in 26 (37%) of the 70 largest U.S. cities. The rates that women with bachelor degrees or higher surpass that of men by the greatest ratio is in Detroit 1.25 (11.4% females/9.1% males). Conversely con·verse 1 intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es 1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak. 2. , females trail men most in El Paso El Paso (ĕl pă`sō), city (1990 pop. 515,342), seat of El Paso co., extreme W Tex., on the Rio Grande opposite Juárez, Mex.; inc. 1873. TX .82 (15.4% female/18.7% male). Work force participation Although female labor force participation has steadily increased in recent decades, it still trails that of males in every city except Detroit. Detroit MI had the highest percentage of females (50.3%) comprising the full-time, full-year work force and Santa Ana CA had the lowest (36%). The mean for the proportion of females of all full-time, full-year workers in the 70 largest US cities was 42.8%. Note that a ratio analysis is not calculated for this variable because it is inherent in the measure. For instance, if women comprise 36% of the full-time work force in Santa Ana, this implies that men comprise 64% (100% -36% = 64%) of the full-time work force. This will also be the case for the variables related to female participation in the lowest and highest wage occupations. To capture females impacted by Crittenden's 'mommy tax', or the restrictive workforce participation imposed by care-giving, an additional measure of women's labor was included to reflect the large number of women with young children or other dependents who are by necessity employed less than 35 hours a week (Crittenden, 2001). The percent of females age 25 to 59 in the labor force, either full or part-time, ranges from a high in Seattle WA (80%) to a low in Santa Ana CA (58%). The mean for females in the labor force is 87.3% for the 70 largest US cities. High and Low Wage Occupations The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables. (BLS See Bureau of Labor Statistics. ) releases information on the occupations with the highest and lowest mean hourly wages. The BLS lowest wage occupations consist the following job categories: 1) food preparation and serving and related occupations, 2) Buildings, grounds cleaning and maintenance, 3) Personal care and service and 4) Farming, fishing and forestry. The farm, fish and forestry occupations were omitted from the current analysis due to the urban nature of the largest 70 US cities. The BLS reports the mean hourly wage for the composite of the three lowest wage occupations used in the current analysis as $9.00 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000). The BLS highest wage occupations are a composition of the following professions: 1) Business and financial operations, 2) Architecture and engineering, 3) Computer and mathematical 4) Management and 5) Legal. The BLS reports the mean hourly wage for the composite of these five highest wage occupations as $28.62 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000). Females comprise more than 50% of those employed in the BLS lowest wage occupations in 50 (71%) of the largest US cities. The 70 city mean for the percent of females employed in the BLS lowest wage occupations is 53%, with a high of 61.2% in Toledo OH, and a low of 42.6% in Santa Ana CA. Females comprise 50% or more of those employed in the BLS highest wage occupations in 2 (3%) of the largest US cities. The mean for the percent of females employed in the BLS highest wage occupations is 41%, with a high of 55.8% in Detroit MI and a low of 34.5% in Colorado Springs Colorado Springs, city (1990 pop. 281,140), seat of El Paso co., central Colo., on Monument and Fountain creeks, at the foot of Pikes Peak; inc. 1886. It is a year-round resort and a booming military, technological, and commercial city. CO. 1999 Gender earnings equality Despite the educational achievements of females, women's overall median earnings and income trail men's in each of the largest 70 U.S. cities, even when limiting the comparison to full-time, full year workers. In addition, it is important to note that the cities with the highest overall (full and part-time) median earnings equality also tend to have the highest full-time earnings and income equality. This is evidenced by the fact that among the 10 cities with the highest ratio of female/male overall median earnings, 7 (70%) also have the highest ratio of full-time, full-year earnings and income equality. The gender ratio in median earnings for full and part-time workers range from a high of in Washington DC of 88.2% ($25,724 female/$29,154 male) to the low in Bakersfield, CA of 57.2% ($16,749 female/$29,305 male). The mean of female/male median earnings for these workers is 74.7% in the 70 largest US cities. The state of California lays claim to the cities with the highest and lowest gender ratios in median earnings for full-time, full-year workers ranging from Los Angeles' 94.7% ($30,197 female/ $31,880 male) to Bakersfield's 69.9% ($27,148 female/$38,834 male). The mean of female/male full-time, full-year median earnings is 81.3% in the 70 largest U.S. cities. Therefore, limiting the inquiry to only full-time, full-year earners improves gender earnings disparities only about 9%. Moreover, the range of full-time, full-year median income disparities Income disparity or wage gap is a term used to describe inequities in average pay or salary between socio-economic groups within society, or the inequities in pay between individuals who produce the same work. nearly replicate rep·li·cate v. 1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat. 2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism. n. A repetition of an experiment or a procedure. those of earnings ranging from 94.0% ($30,782 female/$32,742 male) in Los Angeles Los Angeles (lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. , CA to 70.2% ($28,202 female/$40,175 male) in Bakersfield, CA, with a mean of 81.2%. This suggests that income from sources other than wages, such as investments or child support, have very little significance in aggregate gender income inequality. Family Structure Female headed households, with no husband present, comprise more than half the families with children under 18 years in 9 (13%) of the 70 largest US cities, and the overall mean is 32.3%. Detroit, MI and Santa Ana, CA have the highest (55.2%) and lowest (15.0%) percent, respectively, of single female-headed families. Bivariate Relationships Correlations were calculated to ascertain which of the study's central variables were significantly associated with gender disparity in poverty rates, or the 'poverty gap,' in the largest 70 US cities. Because several variables did not correlate as expected, a second series of correlation tests were conducted on gender earnings equality, or the 'wage gap,' to alleviate concerns related to the construct validity construct validity, n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. of the measures and integrity of the data. As noted in Table 1, when necessary the variables were appropriately transformed prior to testing for significant correlation using a Pearson correlation. Poverty Gap As expected, high ratios of female/male poverty inequality were associated with cities with a higher percentage of female employment in low wage occupations (r = .637, p < .001) and a higher percent of single female headed households with children under age 18 (r = .246, p = .04). Poverty inequality was negatively associated with high general median earnings equality (r = -.468, p < .001) and high full-time earnings equality (r = -.378, p = .001). Surprisingly, gender disparities in the poverty rates were not significantly associated with either of the two education variables, although this is consistent with the devaluation of women's work. There was also an absence of statistically significant correlations between the gender gap in poverty rates and both the percent of females in the labor force, and the percent of females of all full-time workers. This also is this is consistent with the devaluation of women's work, but it may also reflect limited workforce participation of married women who avoid poverty classification by virtue of their spouses' incomes. Less remarkable was the lack of a relationship between the dependent variable and female representation in high wage occupations, typically a status indicator rather than a standard poverty indicator. Earnings Equality Gender earnings equality was positively associated with a high ratio of female/male with a bachelor degree or higher (r =.477, p < .001), and high percentages of females in the full-time workforce (r = .487, p < .001), and high percentages of females in high wage occupations (r = .492, p < .001). Gender median earnings equality were negatively associated with a high proportion of females in low wage occupations (r = .605, p < .001). Multiple Regression Analysis A multiple regression analysis was conducted to ascertain the extent to which the ratio of female/male median earnings, female representation in BLS's high/low wage occupations, and female labor force participation account for the amount that poverty rates for working age females exceed those of males. The percent of single female-headed families with children in each city was also included in this analysis to determine the contribution of family structure to gender poverty disparities. To capture the impact of the social assignment of care tasks to women, which often influences the hours available for paid employment (Crittenden, 2001; King, 2001) the wage gap for part-time and full-time workers is combined in the variable selected in this analysis. However, as would be expected, the main conclusions were supported when the analysis was replicated with a sample restricted to full-time, year-round workers, women whose work patterns most closely resemble those of men. The initial standard multiple regression analysis revealed high levels of colineararity among the independent variables. The stepwise selection technique is a variation of the standard multiple regression that permits the elimination of variables that are measuring much the same construct as other variables in the analysis. Therefore, a stepwise selection technique was employed to eliminate the redundancy among the independent variables and identify the unique portion that each contributed to gender poverty disparity. The stepwise selection eliminated the common portions that the other variables were contributing to the model. Only the percent of female employment in low wage occupations remained as a significant contributor to gender disparity in poverty rates ([beta] = .637, p < .001). The stepwise selection reported that female employment in low wage occupations predicts 41% of the variance in poverty between females and males 18 to 64 in the largest US cities. In essence, the analysis indicated that there is a bivariate relationship between poverty disparity and the percent of females in low wage occupations that explains much of the impact of the other independent variables. Discussion The series of basic biraviate analysis indicated that both female education premiums, and female's increased work force participation, have positively impacted female earnings and lowered the gender wage gap, but failed to have a significant direct impact on the gender poverty gap. Although working age females in the 70 largest cities surpass males in their rate of high school completion and equal the male rate of attaining a bachelor degree, this has not translated to sufficient labor market gains to offset higher poverty rates. This is consistent with occupation segregation theory that posits female's labor and human capital garners fewer rewards than that of males. The stepwise multiple regression results indicate that in the 70 largest US cities the poverty gap is primarily influenced by female's overrepresentation in the lowest-wage occupations. The impact of female labor force participation, earnings inequality and single motherhood, on the poverty gap, all appear to be operating through women's overrepresentation in the lowest wage occupations. This study establishes an important parallel between the economic research on the gender wage gap and the social science research on the gender poverty gap. Labor economists have established that while education and labor force participation help to offset the gender wage gap, it is by far the power of occupational segregation that contributes the strongest impact upon the gender wage gap (Boraas, & Rodgers, 2003). At the city level, or aggregate level, occupational segregation is the factor contributing the single strongest impact to both the poverty and the wage gap between females and males. In addition, the study's use of the city as its unit of analysis reveals important regional variations in the gender poverty gap. (See Tables 2 and 3) Colorado Springs is the only city among the ten cities with the highest gender poverty disparity that is located west of the Mississippi River. Likewise, Raleigh NC and Lexington KY are the only two cities ranking among those with the lowest gender poverty disparity that are located east of the Mississippi River. Gender poverty research rarely explores geographic variations among urban areas, however, examining the regional dynamics that relegate rel·e·gate tr.v. rel·e·gat·ed, rel·e·gat·ing, rel·e·gates 1. To assign to an obscure place, position, or condition. 2. To assign to a particular class or category; classify. See Synonyms at commit. women to the lowest wage occupations, and consequently, a disproportionate share of the poverty burden is important. The US Census reports that the highest overall national poverty rates are in the southern and western states (Dalaker, 2001) and the Institute for Women's Policy Research The Institute for Women's Policy Research (IWPR) conducts and disseminates research that addresses the needs of women, promotes public dialogue, and strengthens families, communities, and societies. reports that women in particular are most likely to live below the poverty level in many southeastern and western states (Caiazza, Shaw & Werschkul, 2004). Clearly, the current study's findings that the cities with the lowest gender poverty inequality are primarily Western cities, begins to illuminate il·lu·mi·nate v. il·lu·mi·nat·ed, il·lu·mi·nat·ing, il·lu·mi·nates v.tr. 1. To provide or brighten with light. 2. To decorate or hang with lights. 3. such data, not only from a singular urban perspective, but also by positioning female poverty statistics in light of male poverty. The feminization of poverty is more extreme in the mid-west and southeastern cities in Table 3 than in any other region in the nation, whereas in San Francisco, Seattle, Honolulu, and Sacramento, the gender poverty gap is relatively narrower. However, the study's findings raise more questions than answers. The most significant being what factors contribute to variations in the occupation segregation associated with this gender disparity in poverty rates? In a national study with a focus on wages rather than poverty, McCall examined why some places appear to systematically foster gender inequality while other places appear to systematically reduce it. McCall suggests that regional labor market factors such as the concentration of high-technology service providers and manufacturers, insecure in·se·cure adj. 1. Lacking emotional stability; not well-adjusted. 2. Lacking self-confidence; plagued by anxiety. in or 'flexible' employment conditions, immigration immigration, entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. , and union presence offers much insight into inequality patterns (McCall, 2001). Other studies of occupation segregation in metropolitan areas suggest the physical dispersion dispersion, in chemistry dispersion, in chemistry, mixture in which fine particles of one substance are scattered throughout another substance. A dispersion is classed as a suspension, colloid, or solution. of jobs, residential planning, commuting patterns and other spatial considerations, impact women's labor segmentation (Hansen & Pratt; 1991; Hwang & Fitzpatrick, 1992; Wyly, 1999). Mcall's study also found that a complex configuration of racial and class inequality interacted with gender inequality. She found that the region with the lowest level of gender wage inequality between men and women also had higher than average levels of racial and class wage inequality among both men and women (McCall, 2001). Therefore, the absence of a racial analysis, as well as local labor market indices, are importation limitations in this current poverty disparity study, particularly since more than half the population of African Americans African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. live in U.S. cities and reside in southern states Southern States U.S. Confederacy government of 11 Southern states that left the Union in 1860. [Am. Hist.: EB, III: 73] Dixie popular name for Southern states in U.S. and for song. [Am. Hist. (U.S. Census, 2000). Other important limitations of the current study were also a result of its reliance upon aggregate census data, which contributed to the decision to simplify the analysis by omitting race variables due to an inability to classify the study's central variables by race. Replicating this study utilizing the 2000 PUMS PUMS Public-Use Microdata Samples (US Census Bureau) , which was not available at the time, would maintain the inclusive sample size while expanding the capacity to conduct within group analysis related to age, education, marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. and racial groups. Policy Implications TANF legislation, which has been operating under a series of short-term congressional resolutions since its expiration in August of 2002, offers little potential for closing the gender gap in poverty rates. This is not only because it fails to address the poverty impact of occupation segregation, but in many ways its low benefits, work requirements, time limits, and education restrictions actually assure the continuation of such poverty patterns (Piven, 2003). Legislator's current proposals continue to reflect the central tenets of PROWRA, which sought to replace public assistance with earnings and encourage "proper" family formation. However, for many women funneled into society's least desirable jobs, work paying poverty level wages has been a poor substitute for public assistance (Fermstad, 2004; Hays, 2003). In addition, there is no evidence to substantiate To establish the existence or truth of a particular fact through the use of competent evidence; to verify. For example, an Eyewitness might be called by a party to a lawsuit to substantiate that party's testimony. the benefits of marriage promotion programs (Lerman, 2002; Epstein, Ooms, Parke, Roberts & Turetsky, 2002). indeed, serious concerns have been expressed about any programs that potentially pressure vulnerable low-income women to remain in abusive relationships (Brush, 1999, 2000; Brandwein & Filiano, 2000). This study indicates that it is the percent of females employed in the BLS lowest wage occupations rather than the proportion of single female-headed families that is the primary determinant of the gender poverty gap in the largest U.S. cities. Nonetheless, the marriage related provisions in current welfare reauthorization proposals include $1.2 billion in Federal funding and $600 million in state matching funding for marriage promotion activities (Parke, 2004). Although these criticisms are not directed toward the elimination of TANF, the reauthorization legislation's stringent work requirements, lack of meaningful education supports and prospects of childcare reductions (CLASP, 2004) will continue to compel Compel - COMpute ParallEL TANF recipients into employment that will consign consign v. 1) to deliver goods to a merchant to sell on behalf of the party delivering the items, as distinguished from transferring to a retailer at a wholesale price for re-sale. Example: leaving one's auto at a dealer to sell and split the profit. these women and their families to continued poverty. The concentration of female employment among a restricted number of jobs has been an acknowledged contributor to significant gender pay differentials in the US since 1918 (Cohen, 2001). However, there is no evidence that occupational segregation results in wage inequality because Scandinavian countries Noun 1. Scandinavian country - any one of the countries occupying Scandinavia Scandinavian nation European country, European nation - any one of the countries occupying the European continent with high levels of occupational segregation have a relatively narrow wage gap, while Japan with less occupational segregation has higher wage inequality (Rosenfeld & Kalleberg, 1991). Therefore, while for almost a century there has been no shortage of pay equity propositions, few have attracted the necessary level of political support. Women comprise over 61% of the minimum wage workers, so setting and maintaining an above-poverty-level legislated minimum wage, through annual cost of living increases, is one method for addressing female poverty disparities due to women's over representation in low wage jobs (Economic Policy Institute, 2003; Figart & Mutari, 1999). The Earned Income Tax Credit The United States federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) is a refundable tax credit that reduces or eliminates the taxes that low-income married working people pay (such as payroll taxes) and also frequently operates as a wage subsidy for low-income workers. (EITC EITC Earned Income Tax Credit EITC Eastern Idaho Technical College EITC Emirates Integrated Telecommunication Company (UAE) EITC Education and Information Transfer Core EITC Electro/Information Technology Conference ), though not a replacement for the minimum wage, is currently the most powerful poverty relief program for working families. Therefore, in absence of minimum wage reforms, maintenance and actual increases in the EITC represent an essential poverty reduction measure (Economic Policy Institute, 2003). Living wage campaigns seek to pass local ordinances A local ordinance is a law usually found in a municipal code. In the United States, these laws are enforced locally in addition to state law and Federal law. See also
Mother's managing home and work responsibilities frequently must reduce their waged work to part-time hours and sustain disproportionate economic penalties (Williamson, 2001). Proponents of equitably valuing part time work contend that part-time employees should enjoy proportionate pro·por·tion·ate adj. Being in due proportion; proportional. tr.v. pro·por·tion·at·ed, pro·por·tion·at·ing, pro·por·tion·ates To make proportionate. pay and advancement opportunities. It has been demonstrated that such policies actually save companies money by increasing productivity and reducing turnover for both men and women deciding to spend more time with their families (Williamson, 2001). Feminist theorist the·o·rist n. One who theorizes; a theoretician. theorist a person who forms theories or who specializes in the theory of a particular subject. See also: Ideas, Learning Noun 1. assert that appropriately valuing the nurturing and female dominated occupations with just compensation would reduce poverty while restoring prestige to the underpaid un·der·paid v. Past tense and past participle of underpay. underpaid Adjective not paid as much as the job deserves underpaid adj → , but economically necessary and vital, work performed by women, as well as men, in the secondary labor market The secondary labor market is the labor market consisting of high-turnover, low-pay, and usually part time and/or temporary jobs. Sometimes, secondary jobs are performed by high school or college students. (Folbre, 2001). Recall that one of the three BLS lowest wage occupations was personal care work. Significant attention has been bestowed upon the poor pay in this female dominated occupation and state subsidies for personal care work have been proposed. Providing state subsidies to supplement the wages of care workers is an important proposal for internalizing the costs of the positive externalities externalities side-effects, either harmful or beneficial, borne by those not directly involved in the production of a commodity. produced by care workers that all members of society use when they are young or ill (England, Budig, & Folbre, 2002). Other work oriented o·ri·ent n. 1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia. 2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality. b. A pearl having exceptional luster. 3. anti-poverty initiatives include, improving family leave policies, implementing comparable worth programs, strengthening labor unions labor union: see union, labor. , and adopting 'solidarity wage' policies, which keeps wages up at the bottom and reduce wage inequalities (King, 2001). Note that each of the previous propositions benefit females and mothers, as well as males and fathers, in low wage occupations. Almost all these strategies emphasize an attack on women's low-wage jobs directly, rather than indirectly through a comparison to male occupations and wage structures (McCall, 2001). In 1973, 23.5% of full time workers earned less than the poverty level for a family of four and by 1997, in the midst Adv. 1. in the midst - the middle or central part or point; "in the midst of the forest"; "could he walk out in the midst of his piece?" midmost of the US last 'economic prosperity' boom, that percentage increased to 28.6% (Hallock, 2001). Initiatives that diminish the disproportionate level of female poverty benefit both females and males. Therefore, strengthening the entire workforce with just-wage policies is beneficial for all, and a worthy national priority.
Table 1
Initial and Transformed Distribution Statistics for Central Study
Variables
Standard Original Transformed
Mean Deviation Skewness Skewness Procedure
EDUCATION
Ratio Female/ .89 .085 1.24 .698 Log
Male, Ages 18
to 64 w/ less
than High School
Diploma
Ratio Female/ .99 .064 1.04 .649 Log
Male,Ages 18 to
64 w/ Bachelor
Degree +
OCCUPATION
% Females 53.2% .034 -.54 -- Unnecessary
in Low Wage
Occupations
% Females in 41.4% .041 .81 .642 Square Root
High Wage
Occupations
LABOR FORCE
PARTICIPATION
% Females age 71.3% .049 -.523 -- Unnecessary
25-59 in labor
force
% Females of 42.8% .030 .279 -- Unnecessary
full-time,
full-year
workers
EARNINGS
Ratio Female/ 74.7% .065 -.43 -- Unnecessary
Male Median
Earnings
Ratio Female/ 81.2% .055 .13 -- Unnecessary
Male FT-FY
Median Earnings
FAMILY
STRUCTURE
% of all families 32.3% ..106 .700 .165 Log
w/ children
under 18 that are
Female Headed
Families
POVERTY
(Poverty
Disparity)
Ratio Female/ 1.27 .112 1.04 .572 Log
Male Ages 18-64,
with Income
below Poverty
Table 2
Ten US Cities with the Lowest Gender Poverty Disparity, Presented
w/ Low Wage Occupation and Earnings Variables
Ratio
Female/ Percent Percent
Male Females Percent Female
Rates in Female/ Headed
Poverty Lowest Male Families w/
(Ages Wage Median children
18-64) Occupation Earnings > 18
70 City Mean 1.27 53.2% 74.7% 32.3%
San Francisco, CA 1.07 45.5% * 79.6% 22.1% *
Seattle, WA (^) 1.07 49.5% 79.7% 24.5%
Honolulu, HI 1.11 49.4% * 76.1% 21.4% *
Sacramento, CA (^) 1.12 49.2% * 81.8% (+) 32.3%
Raleigh, NC (^) 1.12 49.5% 78.8% 28.4%
Minneapolis, MN (^) 1.14 49.7% 85.1% (+) 35.2%
Lexington Fayette, KY 1.14 53.0% 71.7% 26.5%
Phoenix, AZ 1.15 48.7% * 78.5% 22.5%
Oakland, CA (^) 1.15 52.0% 85.6% (+) 36.4%
Denver, CO (^) 1.15 51.2% 83.1% (+) 28.2%
* Indicates presence on the list of lowest 10 among the 70 largest US
Cities.
(+) Indicates presence on the list of highest 10 among the 70 largest
US Cities.
(^) Percent of females with bachelor degrees or higher, equals or
exceeds that of males.
Table 3
Ten US Cities with the Highest Gender Poverty Disparity, Presented
w/Low Wage Occupation and Earnings Variables
Ratio
Female/ Percent Percent
Male Females Percent Female
Rates in Female/ Headed
Poverty Lowest Male Families w/
(Ages Wage Median children
18-64) Occupation Earnings > 18
70 City Mean 1.27 53.2% 74.7% 32.3%
Virginia Beach, VA (^) 1.75 59.2% (+) 64.3% * 20.7% *
Jacksonville, FL 1.46 55.2% 72.8% 30.0%
Toledo, OH 1.44 61.2% (+) 60.4% * 36.8%
Atlanta, GA 1.42 53.8% 80.3% 53.4% (+)
Memphis, TN (^) 1.42 56.0% 76.5% 47.1%
New Orleans, LA (^) 1.41 55.9% 68.0% * 50.0% (+)
Tampa, FL 1.41 52.0% 73.9% 34.9%
Cincinnati, OH 1.39 55.7% 76.9% 50.1% (+)
Indianapolis, IN 1.39 55.8% 70.0% 32.0%
Colorado Springs, CO 1.39 56.1% 62.6% * 20.4% *
* Indicates presence on the list of lowest 10 among the 70 largest US
Cities.
(+) Indicates presence on the list of highest 10 among the 70 largest
US Cities.
(^) Percent of females with bachelor degrees or higher, equals or
exceeds that of males.
References ACORN. (2003). A living wage movement. Living wage resource center. Accessed September 20, 2003 from http://www.livingwagecampaign.org/ ACORN. (2001) Living wage impact: Research summaries and citations. Accessed September 20, 2003 from http://www.livingwagecampaign.org/impact.php American Community Survey. (2003). Percent of people below poverty. U.S. Census. Accessed September 18, 2003 from: http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/Ranking/2002/R01T040.htm Bangs, Lichtenwalter, Hughes, Anthou & Shorter. (2004) Pittsburgh Women's Benchmarks Report. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Center for Social and Urban Research. Bianchi, S. (1999). Feminization feminization /fem·i·ni·za·tion/ (fem?i-ni-za´shun) 1. the normal development of primary and secondary sex characters in females. 2. the induction or development of female secondary sex characters in the male. and juvenilization of poverty: Trends, relative risks, causes, and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology 25, 307-333. Boraas, S. & Rodgers, W. (2003). How does gender play a role in the earnings gap? An update. Monthly Labor Review The Monthly Labor Review is a publication by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly publications are usually published by topic. Researchers outside of the BLS are welcome to submit their articles. External links
Brandwein, R.A. & Filiano, D.M. (2000). Toward real welfare reform: The voices of battered bat·ter 1 v. bat·tered, bat·ter·ing, bat·ters v.tr. 1. To hit heavily and repeatedly with violent blows. 2. To subject to repeated beatings or physical abuse. 3. women. Affilia 15 (2), 224-243. Brown, J. (1997). Marriage overlooked as poverty cure. Headway head·way n. 1. Forward movement or the rate of forward movement, especially of a ship. 2. Progress toward a goal. 3. The clear vertical space beneath a ceiling or archway; clearance. 4. 9(9), 1-26. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review. Accessed November 2, 2002 from www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2001/Nov/wk3/art03.htm Budig, M., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review The American Sociological Review is the flagship journal of the American Sociological Association (ASA). The ASA founded this journal (often referred to simply as ASR) in 1936 with the mission to publish original works of interest to the sociology discipline in general, new . 66(2): 204-225. Brush, L. D. (1999). Women battering and welfare reform: The view from a welfare to work program. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 26(3), 4960. Brush, L. D. (2000). Battering, traumatic stress Traumatic stress is recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [1] as an acute emotional condition associated with reactive anxiety. , and welfare-to-work transition. Violence Against Women, 6, 1039-1065. Casper, L., McLanahan, S., & Garfinkel, I. (1994). The gender poverty gap: What we can learn from other countries. American Sociological Review. 59, 594-605. Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP). (2004). Covering welfare and low-income family policy. CLASP Update 17(3), 1-8. Accessed May 1, 2004 from www.clasp.org Chirstopher, K., England, P., Smeeding, T., & Phillips, K.R. (2002). The gender gap in poverty in modern nations: Single motherhood, the market and the state. Sociological Perspectives Sociological Perspectives is the official publication of the Pacific Sociological Association. It is a peer-reviewed quarterly journal published by University of California Press, in Berkeley, California. It was first published in 1957. , 45 (3), 219-242 Cohen, Samuel. (2000). Race, Gender, and Discrimination at Work. Boulder, Colorado The City of Boulder (, Mountain Time Zone) is a home rule municipality located in Boulder County, Colorado, United States. Boulder is the 11th most populous city in the State of Colorado, as well as the most populous city and the county : Westview Press Cortright, Joseph, and Reamer, Andrew. (1998). Socioeconomic so·ci·o·ec·o·nom·ic adj. Of or involving both social and economic factors. socioeconomic Adjective of or involving economic and social factors Adj. 1. Data for Understanding Your Regional Economy: A Users Guide. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce, Economic Development Administration. Crittenden, Ann. (2001). The price of motherhood: Why the most important job in the world is sill the least valued. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NY: Henry Holt and Company Dalaker, J. (2001). Poverty in tire United States: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office Daly, Mary Daly, Mary (1928– ) theologian, feminist writer; born in Schenectady, N.Y. She studied at the College of St. Rose (Albany, N.Y.) (B.A. 1950), Catholic University of America (M.A. 1952), St. Mary's College (Notre Dame, Ind.) (Ph.D. & Rake, Katherine (2003). Gender and the welfare state: Care, work and welfare in Europe and the USA. Malden, MA: Polity Press & Blackwell Publishing. Economic Policy Institute. (2003). Minimum wage: Facts at a Glance. EPI EPI exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. Issue Guide. Accessed September 20, 2003 from http://www.epinet.org/content. cfm/issueguides_minwage_minwage England, P. (1992). From status attainment Status attainment or status attainment theory deals largely with one’s position in his or her society. The idea behind status attainment is that one can be mobile, either upwardly or downwardly, in a form of class system. to segregation and devaluation. Contemporary Sociology Contemporary Sociology (CS) is an academic journal in the field of sociology, published bimonthly (January, March, May, July, September, November) by American Sociological Association. , 21(5), 643-647. England P., Hermsen J.M. & Cotter D.A. (2000). The devaluation of women's work: A comment on Tam. American Journal of Sociology Established in 1895, the American Journal of Sociology (AJS) is the oldest scholarly journal of sociology in the United States. It is published bimonthly by The University of Chicago Press. AJS is edited by Andrew Abbott of the University of Chicago. , 105(6), 1741-1760. England, P., Budig, M., & Folbre, N. (2002). Wages of virtue: The relative pay of care work. Society for the study of social problems. 49(4), 455-473. Epstien, J.L., Ooms, T, Parke, M., Roberts, P., & Turetsky, V. (2002). Spending too much, accomplishing too little: Art analysis of the family formation provisions of H.R. 4737 and recommendations for change. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy Accessed March 15 from www.clasp.org Folbre, N. (2001). The invisible heart: Economics and family values family values pl.n. The moral and social values traditionally maintained and affirmed within a family. . New York, NY: The New Press Figart, D. & Lapidus J. (1995). A gendered analysis of labor market policies for the working poor. Feminist Economics Feminist economics broadly refers to a developing branch of economics that applies feminist insights and critiques to economics. Research under this heading is often interdisciplinary, critical, or heterodox. 1 (3), 60-81 Figart, D. & Mutari, E. (1999). Global Feminization and Flexible Labour Markets: Gendered Discourse in the Opposition to Pay Equity Reform. In J. Gregory, R. Sales & A. Hegewisch, (Eds.) Women, Work and Inequality: The challenge of equal pay in a deregulated labour market. (44-57). New York, NY: St. Martin's St. Martin's or St. Martins may refer to:
Fremstad, S. (2004). Center on Budget and Policy Priorities The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP) is a non-profit think tank which describes itself as a "policy organization ... working at the federal and state levels on fiscal policy and public programs that affect low- and moderate-income families and individuals. . Recent welfare reform research findings: Implications for TANF reauthorization on state TANF policies. Accessed March 10, 2004 from www.cbpp.org Goldberg, G.S. & Kremen, E. Eds.(1990). The feminization of poverty: Only in America Only in America is a children's television programme that originally aired in 2005 on the CBBC Channel. It is presented by Fearne Cotton and Reggie Yates. The show documents the pair going on a road trip across the United States. ? New York, NY: Greenwood Press Grube-Farrell, B. (2002). Women, work, and occupational segregation in the uniformed services The Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and Public Health Services. See also Military Department; Military Service. . Affilia, 17(3), 332-353. Hallock, M. (2001). Pay equity: Did it work? In M. King (Ed.) Squaring up: Policy strategies to rise women's income in the United States Income in the United States is measured by the United States Department of Commerce either by household or individual. The differences between household and personal income is considerable since 42% of households, the majority of those in the top two quintiles with incomes . 136-161. Ann Arbor Ann Arbor, city (1990 pop. 109,592), seat of Washtenaw co., S Mich., on the Huron River; inc. 1851. It is a research and educational center, with a large number of government and industrial research and development firms, many in high-technology fields such as , MI: University of Michigan (body, education) University of Michigan - A large cosmopolitan university in the Midwest USA. Over 50000 students are enrolled at the University of Michigan's three campuses. The students come from 50 states and over 100 foreign countries. Press. Hanson, S. & Pratt, G. (1991). Job search and the occupational segregation of women. Annals an·nals pl.n. 1. A chronological record of the events of successive years. 2. A descriptive account or record; a history: "the short and simple annals of the poor" of the Association of American Geographers The Association of American Geographers (AAG) is an educational and scientific society aimed at advancing the understanding of, study of, and importance of geography and related fields. , 81(2), 229-253. Hays, S. (2003). Flat broke with children: Women in the age of welfare reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hwang, S.S & Fitzpatrick, K.M. (1992). The effects of occupational sex segregation Noun 1. sex segregation - the traditional Hindu or Muslim system of keeping women secluded purdah separatism, segregation - a social system that provides separate facilities for minority groups and the spatial distribution of jobs on commuting patterns. Social Science Quarterly 73(3), 550-564. Caiazza A., Shaw A., & Werschkul M. (2004). (2004). Women's economic status in the States: Wide Disparities by Race, Ethnicity, and Region. Institute for Women's Policy Research. Accessed May 11, 2004 from www.iwpr.org King, M. (2001). Squaring up: Policy strategies to rise women's income in the United States. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Lerman, R. (2002). The Urban Institute. Should Government Promote Healthy Marriages? Accessed March 13, 2004 from www.urban.org Levine, L. (2001). The gender wage gap and pay equity: Is comparable worth the next step? Congressional Research Service The Congressional Research Service (CRS) is a branch of the Library of Congress that provides objective, nonpartisan research, analysis, and information to assist Congress in its legislative, oversight, and representative functions. U.S. , The Library of Congress. Accessed September 16, 2003 from http://www.mjfreedman.org/freedmantf/98-278.pdf McCall, Leslie. (2001). Complex inequality: Gender, class, and race in the new economy. New York, New York: Routledge McLanahan, Sara and Kelly, Erin. (1999). Feminization of Poverty: Past and Future. In J, Chafetz (Ed.) Handbook of Gender Sociology. (127-145) New York, NY: Plenum In a building, the space between the real ceiling and the dropped ceiling, which is often used as an air duct for heating and air conditioning. It is also filled with electrical, telephone and network wires. See plenum cable. Also Available on WWW: Network of the family and the economy. Accessed June 12, 2003, from www.olin.wustl.edu/macarthur Murray, C. (1994). Losing Ground: American social policy, 1950-1980. New York, NY: Basic Books National Poverty Center. (2003). Poverty in the United States Poverty in the United States refers to people whose annual family income is less than a "poverty line" set by the U.S. government. Poverty is a condition in which a person or community is deprived of, or lacks the essentials for, a minimum standard of well being and life. . University of Michigan Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy The Ford School offers wide-ranged research in public policy and is known for its strong quantitative orientation. The school runs dual degree programs with the University of Michigan Law School, Ross School of Business, School of Information, School of Social Work, School of Natural . Accessed September 18, 2003 form www.npc.umich.edu/poverty/ Parke, M. (2004). Center for Law and Social Policy. Marriage-related provisions in welfare reauthorization proposals: A Summary. Accessed March 14, 2004 from www.clasp.org Parrott, Sharon. (2003). New census data show an increase in poverty. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Accessed September 18, 2003 from www.cbpp. org/9-3-03pov.htm Pear, R. & Kirkpatrick, D. (2004). Bush plans $1.5 billion drive for promotion of marriage. New York Times. January 14 pg A1. Pearce, Diana. (1978). The feminization of poverty: Women, work and welfare. Urban and Social Change Review. 11 (1), 28-36 Piven, Francis, F. (2002). Globalization globalization Process by which the experience of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, is becoming standardized around the world. Factors that have contributed to globalization include increasingly sophisticated communications and transportation , American politics, and welfare policy. In R. Alebelda & A. Withhorn (Eds) Lost Ground: Welfare Reform, Poverty and Beyond. (27-41) Cambridge, MA: South End Press. Reskin, B. (1993). Sex segregation in the workplace. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 241-270 Rosenfeld, R. & Kalleberg, A. (1991). Gender inequality in the labor market. Acta Sociologica 34:207-225. Tomaskovic-Devy, D. & Skaggs, S.(2002). Sex segregation, labor process organization, and gender earnings inequality. American Journal of Sociology, 108(1), 102-128. United States Census Bureau The United States Census Bureau (officially Bureau of the Census as defined in Title ) is a part of the United States Department of Commerce. . How the Census Bureau Measures Poverty. Poverty. Accessed September 15, 2003, from www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/ povdef. United States Census Bureau. (2000). Facts for Features--Population Distribution. Public Information Office. Accessed May 11, 2004 from http://www. census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features/ 000782.html United States Congress. (1996). Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Public Law 104-193, H.R. 3747. Waite, Linda J. & Gallagher, Maggie. (2000). The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier and better off financially. New York, NY: Doubleday Waldfogel, Jane. (1998). "Understanding the 'Family Gap' in pay for women with children. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 12(1), 137-156 White House. (2002). Working Toward Independence. Promote child well-being and healthy marriages. Accessed March 17, 2004, from www.whitehouse.gov Williams, J. (2000). Unbending gender: Why family and work conflict and what to do about it. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press Wyly, E. (1999) Local labor markets and occupation sex segregation in an American metropolis. Journal of Urban Affairs, 21(1), 1-33. SARA LICHTENWALTER University of Pittsburgh |
|
||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion