Gender and physical therapy career success factors.

Key Words: Career mobility; Career success; Gender; Physical therapy profession, professional issues; Self-esteem, family issues.

If the employment characteristics of male and female physical therapists reported in the ongoing American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) membership profile reports since 1983 are used to describe career success, the findings indicate a pattern in which male physical therapists experience greater professional success than their female counterparts.[1-5] Female therapists lag behind male therapists in wages, benefits, leadership roles, and practice experience (eg, less full-time employment and more career interruptions). Men also are more likely than women to own their own practices.[4,5] Proportionately, women are represented less than men as American Board of Physical Therapy Specialties certified clinical specialists.(*)

Gender discrepancies among physical therapists provided the impetus for the APTA Office of Women's Issues, in collaboration with members of APTA's Advisory Panel on Women and APTA's Department of Research Services, to conduct a survey to determine (1) how male and female physical therapists perceive career success and (2) what factors enhance or inhibit the achievement of personal career success. We postulated that the items from the APTA membership profile reports provided only a partial description of important factors associated with career success.

In addition, we hypothesized that gender influences the type and importance of factors associated with career success in physical therapy. The need to examine female and male therapists separately in terms of perceptions of career success is substantiated by social role theory.[6,7] Social role theory purports that careers are influenced by societal traditions, role modeling, and values.[8] Historically, employment patterns for men and women have been dissimilar.[9-11] Additionally, career success is determined by factors that are different for women and men.[12-14]

Career success has been defined as a series of positive psychological or work-related achievements resulting from career experiences throughout a person's life.[12,15] Jaskolka et al[15] found that career success is a value judgment and that whether a career is considered successful depends on who does the judging.

Numerous measures have been utilized to examine a person's own view of success. Commonly selected measures are salary and position.[15-17] These are classified as external or objective measures because they are more easily verified by others. In contrast, internal or subjective measures of career success are not as easily judged by others. Measures that are classified as internal or subjective arise from several sources. These sources include (1) human capital assets (eg, education),[12] (2),job satisfaction.[18-19] (3) structural features and options within all occupation (eg, full versus part-time employment),[12] (4) roles or role stress,[17,20-22] (5) personal characteristics (eg, ethical practitioner, goals),[14,17,23] and (6) interpersonal factors (eg, receiving respect or recognition, mentor relationships).[17,24]

An internal indicator associated with gender and career success that was of interest in this study was self-esteem. Self-esteem is an individual's feeling of self-regard and self-value. 17 Self-esteem is a personality, factor or internal factor that has been found to positively influence an individual's perception of career success.[17,23,24] High self-esteem has been associated with greater job satisfaction, lower work stress, lower turnover rates, and higher feelings of competency.[14]

Studies[25-27] indicate that women have lower self-esteem levels than men have. Sex role socialization (eg, cultural sex-typing) is hypothesized to explain women's lower self-esteem levels. Gender differences in self-esteem may arise from developmental influences where women learn to underestimate their personal capacities. When women lack self-esteem in comparison with men with similar abilities, this may contribute to lesser career success and satisfaction. Career path choices also are associated with self-esteem levels.[27] Thus, lower self-esteem may be related to some of the gaps, discrepancies, and inequalities in women's career experiences.

Various authors[12,18,28-30] have reported gender differences and similarities in factors other than self-esteem with respect to perceptions of career success. Melamed[12] contends that men perceive their career success to be based on personal attributes and opportunities. Women, however, perceive that personal merit and employment in an organization favorable to women are factors associated with career success.[12]

Stevens et al[28] and Elizur[29] suggest that salary is less important to women than to men in achieving self-defined career success. Thus, women may believe themselves successful at lower salary levels. Salary however, may not be considered a primary determinant of career success by either sex. According to Poole et al,[18] both women and men rated factors such as work satisfaction more highly than income as determinants of career success.

Women in Melamed's study[12] also reported that lack of family responsibilities increased career success. Conflicting demands between occupational and family roles among women are more likely to occur when work commitment is high in combination with inflexible and excessive family needs.[31] Traditional socialization influences on women suggest that employment will be secondary to caring for the family. Many women have interrupted their career experiences in order to meet family needs. Long and Porter[30] found that this pattern negatively affects women who work continuously as well as those who leave the job market. The anticipated pattern of discontinuous employment by some women was found to lower wages for all women. Long and Porter[30] concluded that individual experiences in employment are influenced by personal history, as well as by societal stereotypes regarding women's employment and family roles.

Not only do perceptions of success vary by gender, research indicates that factors influencing career success vary by profession.[18,23,32-34] Management information systems workers value ongoing technological training and job discretion,[16] Psychologists identified the social impact of their work and knowledge of ethical standards as factors that influence success.[20] A study of business managers indicated that a major factor in success was company seniority[15] In 1993, full-time faculty members from 2 state universities in the midwestern and western regions of the United States were surveyed.[17] These faculty, members, who held tenure-track positions and represented multiple disciplines, included self-esteem, competence, resource availability, and networking as contributors to success.[17] These studies suggest that physical therapists also might identify unique factors for describing career success.

Thus, career success can,be defined as the perception of an individual's employment achievements over time. Internal factors (eg, self-esteem, feelings about ability to balance roles) are believed to influence perceptions about career success more than external factors (eg, salary, title). Career success is a complex concept that changes according to the person asked and is defined differently in professions that have been surveyed. Gender has been found to affect the factors selected to define career success as well as the relative importance of each factor.

Career success issues are important to the well-being of individual therapists and to the advancement of the physical therapy profession. If therapists feel successful, there is less risk of their leaving the profession or employment setting because they are likely to be happy, more motivated, and more productive.[17] Physical therapists may have different definitions of career success because of variations in characteristics such as gender, types of settings, clients, clinical skills, experience, and family or administrative responsibilities. When a narrow standard of salary or position is used to measure career success, validity problems arise because career success appears to be determined by multiple factors. Representing career success through a single variable or a combination of external indicators is misleading if other factors (eg, internal factors) also are considered important. Interventions to enhance career success are difficult to plan if the definition is unclear, if variations occur according to gender, or if barriers to and facilitators of career success remain unknown.

The purpose of our study, therefore, was to investigate the relationship between gender and physical therapists' perceptions of career success. We explored gender with respect to factors that define career success, factors that enhance or inhibit career success, and self-esteem and its relationship to career success. Our research questions were:

1. Are perceptions of career success different for male versus female physical therapists?

2. Does the importance of the items that comprise the meaning of career success differ according to gender for physical therapists?

3. Will women and men identify the same kinds of inhibitors and enhancements associated with achieving career success?

4. Do male physical therapists have higher self-esteem than female physical therapists have?

5. How does self-esteem correlate with career success for women and men in the physical therapy profession?

Our hypotheses related to these research questions were:

Hypothesis 1: Physical therapists will select a unique set of factors to describe career success.

Hypothesis 1a: Internal factors will be rated higher than external factors.

Hypothesis 1b: Salary will demonstrate the highest positive correlation with career success of the following external items tested: age, years in a position, years in practice, hours per week in child care, and salary.

Hypothesis 2: Men and women will differ with respect to perceptions of career success.

Hypothesis 2a: Men will rate themselves higher in career success compared with women.

Hypothesis 2b: Men will report greater importance of salary and position compared with women.

Hypothesis 3: Gender differences will be found primarily with respect to family influences on career success.

Hypothesis 3a: Women will identify the following family indicators as more negative influences on career success: (1) family responsibilities, (2) time with family, and (3) pregnancy.

Hypothesis 3b: Occupational factors that influence career success will demonstrate no gender differences.

Hypothesis 3c: Personal factors (eg, motivation, clinical competence) will demonstrate no gender differences.

Hypothesis 4: Self-esteem will be positively related to career success.

Hypothesis 4a: Male physical therapists will report higher levels of self-esteem compared with female physical therapists.

Hypothesis 4b: For both sexes, the correlation between self-esteem and career success will be positive and moderate in strength.

Hypothesis 4c: For both sexes, the correlation between self-esteem and career success will be stronger than the correlation between salary and career success.

Method

A questionnaire survey was selected as the most appropriate method to gather data to answer the questions posed in this study. The original questionnaire was developed by APTA staff and members of APTA's Advisory Panel on Women. The questionnaire consisted of 3 sections using Likert scales, a single question on overall perception of career success, and a set of descriptive questions.

In the first part of the questionnaire, subjects were asked to define career success by rating 23 descriptive items as indicators of their career success. These 23 items were originally developed as a compilation of items previously used by researchers and included items the authors (MJR and MSG) believed were applicable to physical therapists.[19,24,32,35-37] A 5-point scale (1 = very unimportant, 5 = very important) was used. Examples of items were high income, improvement of patient health, balance of professional role with other roles and responsibilities, and provision of free services (Tabs. 1 and 2).

Table 1.
Gender and Items Important to Describing Career Success

                                                     Female
Item                                           n     [bar]X    SD

Improvement of patient health                1,535    4.77     0.54
Achievement of personal career goals         1,536    4.49     0.65

Recognition (formal and informal) as a
professional by other health care
professionals                                1,539    4.20     0.76

Recognition (formal and informal) as a
professional by patients and other members
of the public                                1,539    4.28     0.71

Respect from other physical therapists       1,539    4.41     0.65
Achievement of supervisory status            1,522    3.40     1.07
Attainment of executive position             1,503    2.85     1.12
Employment in a full-time position           1,504    3.20     1.27

Balance of professional role with
other roles and responsibilities             1,535    4.50     0.73

Personal satisfaction from career            1,542    4.82     0.47
High income                                  1,538    3.82     0.76
Receipt of substantial employment benefits   1,518    3.72     0.89

Advancement of knowledge/skills through
continuing education (short courses not
leading to a degree)                         1,541    4.43     0.70

Advancement of knowledge/skills through
continuing higher education
(postprofessional degrees)                   1,514    3.55     1.01

Advancement of others' knowledge (eg,
through publications, presentations)         1,525    3.62     0.91

Achievement of certification as a clinical
specialist                                   1,480    3.05     1.00

Provision of free services or services at
reduced fees                                 1,432    3.11     0.88

Participation in professional association
activities                                   1,532    3.43     0.86

Appointment or election to a leadership
position in a professional association       1,517    2.54     0.95

Ethical practice                             1,532    4.86     0.48
Variety provided by work environment         1,539    4.21     0.76
Challenge provided by work environment       1,538    4.46     0.62

Latitude in handling work-related
responsibilities                             1,529    4.46     0.63

                                                    Male
Item                                          n      [bar]X     SD

Improvement of patient health                306      4.79     0.50
Achievement of personal career goals         307      4.47     0.65

Recognition (formal and informal) as a
professional by other health care
professionals                                310      4.13     0.81

Recognition (formal and informal) as a
professional by patients and other members
of the public                                309      4.31     0.67

Respect from other physical therapists       309      4.22     0.74
Achievement of supervisory status            306      3.36     1.07
Attainment of executive position             305      3.03     1.15
Employment in a full-time position           305      3.81     1.27

Balance of professional role with
other roles and responsibilities             308      4.37     0.77

Personal satisfaction from career            310      4.77     0.53
High income                                  310      3.92     0.72
Receipt of substantial employment benefits   304      3.84     0.78

Advancement of knowledge/skills through
continuing education (short courses not
leading to a degree)                         310      4.28     0.82

Advancement of knowledge/skills through
continuing higher education
(postprofessional degrees)                   303      3.67     1.02

Advancement of others' knowledge (eg,
through publications, presentations)         307      3.75     0.92

Achievement of certification as a clinical
specialist                                   294      3.12     1.07

Provision of free services or services at
reduced fees                                 303      3.15     0.88

Participation in professional association
activities                                   309      3.54     0.87

Appointment or election to a leadership
position in a professional association       306      2.72     1.01

Ethical practice                             309      4.87     0.46
Variety provided by work environment         309      4.05     0.86
Challenge provided by work environment       310      4.35     0.68

Latitude in handling work-related
responsibilities                             307      4.44     0.64

Item                                          t        p(a)

Improvement of patient health                0.45     .653
Achievement of personal career goals         0.54     .591

Recognition (formal and informal) as a
professional by other health care
professionals                                1.64     .101

Recognition (formal and informal) as a
professional by patients and other members
of the public                                0.72     .474

Respect from other physical therapists       4.30     .001(*)
Achievement of supervisory status            0.50     .617
Attainment of executive position             2.56     .010(*)
Employment in a full-time position           7.74     .001(*)

Balance of professional role with
other roles and responsibilities             2.93     .003(*)

Personal satisfaction from career            1.40     .161
High income                                  2.19     .028
Receipt of substantial employment benefits   2.33     .020

Advancement of knowledge/skills through
continuing education (short courses not
leading to a degree)                         2.86     .004(*)

Advancement of knowledge/skills through
continuing higher education
(postprofessional degrees)                   1.80     .072

Advancement of others' knowledge (eg,
through publications, presentations)         2.18     .029

Achievement of certification as a clinical
specialist                                   0.94     .348

Provision of free services or services at
reduced fees                                 0.61     .543

Participation in professional association
activities                                   2.05     .041

Appointment or election to a leadership
position in a professional association       3.08     .002(*)

Ethical practice                             0.04     .968
Variety provided by work environment         3.18     .002(*)
Challenge provided by work environment       2.92     .004(*)

Latitude in handling work-related
responsibilities                             0.72     .470

Asterisk (*) indicates gender differences where P[is less than or equal to].01.

Table 2.
Rank Order of Items Important to Describing Career Success(a)

Item                                               Female    Male

Ethical practice                                      1       1
Personal satisfaction from career                     2       3
Improvement of patient health                         3       2
Balance of professional role with
other roles and responsibilities                      4       6
Achievement of personal career goals                  5       4
Latitude in handling work-related
  responsibilities                                  6-7       5
Challenge provided by work environment              6-7       7
Advancement of knowledge/skills through
  continuing education (short courses not
  leading to a degree)                                8       9
Respect from other physical therapists                9      10
Recognition (formal and informal) as a
  professional by patients and other members
  of the public                                      10       8
Variety provided by work environment                 11      12
Recognition (formal and informal) as a
  professional by other health care professional     12      11
High income                                          13      13
Receipt of substantial employment benefits           14      14
Advancement of others' knowledge (eg,
  through publications, presentations)               15      16
Advancement of knowledge/skills through
  continuing higher education
  (postprofessional degrees)                         16      17
Participation in professional activities             17      18
Achievement of supervisory status                    18      19
Employment full-time                                 19      15
Provision of free services or services
  at reduced fees                                    20      20
Achievement of certification as a
  clinical specialist                                21      21
Attainment of executive position                     22      22
Appointment or election to a leadership
  position in a professional association             23      23

(a) Rank-order differences between female and male respondents that are greater than or equal to 2 units are underlined.

The second part of the questionnaire contained 26 items hypothesized to be associated with enhancing or inhibiting career success.[12,24,32,38-40] Respondents used a 5-point Likert scale (1 = negative effect, 5 = positive effect) to answer the question, "How have these variables affected your career?" Examples of the items were "age," "geographical moves," and "family responsibilities" (Tabs. 3 and 4). An item rated below 3 was considered an inhibitor, and an item rated above 3 was considered an enhancement to career success. A score of 3 indicated a neutral effect.

Table 3.
Rank Order of Items Important to Describing Career Success(a)

                                                  Female
Item                                       n      [bar]X     SD

Personal characteristics
Competency in professional/technical
  skills                                  1,538     4.67    0.57
Competency in nonclinical skills (eg,
  business and computer skills)           1,486     3.81    0.98
Age                                       1,505     3.35    0.82
Sex                                       1,486     2.98    0.79
Racial/ethnic origin                      1,342     3.07    0.48
Sexual orientation                        1,323     3.06    0.48
Personal motivation/ambition              1,529     4.63    0.62

Occupational indicators
Practice environment                      1,505     4.28    1.03
Salary                                    1,521     4.04    0.90
Interaction with professional
  colleagues                              1,544     4.21    0.83
Flexibility of practice conditions        1,523     4.36    0.88
Professional support system               1,461     3.87    0.87
Access to specialized training            1,473     4.16    0.89
Mentors                                   1,405     4.08    0.88
Role models                               1,484     4.15    0.82
Networking                                1,481     4.07    0.80

Family factors
Family responsibilities                   1,446     2.93    1.20
Time with family                          1,457     2.96    1.22
Pregnancy                                 1,069     2.63    0.89
Support received from family              1,519     4.28    0.83

Miscellaneous
Geographical location                     1,506     3.87    1.07
Geographical moves (relocation)           1,059     3.52    1.20
Time for outside interests                1,527     3.11    1.24
Availability of financial resources       1,427     3.71    1.03
Support received from friends             1,516     4.15    0.79
Chance                                    1,345     3.69    0.84

                                                  Male
Item                                       n    [bar]X     SD

Personal characteristics
Competency in professional/technical
  skills                                  309     4.62    0.62
Competency in nonclinical skills (eg,
  business and computer skills)           312     4.02    0.90
Age                                       308     3.38    0.73
Sex                                       297     3.41    0.76
Racial/ethnic origin                      254     3.17    0.59
Sexual orientation                        244     3.09    0.55
Personal motivation/ambition              312     4.68    0.51

Occupational indicators
Practice environment                      309     4.43    0.92
Salary                                    310     4.17    0.86
Interaction with professional
  colleagues                              313     4.23    0.72
Flexibility of practice conditions        309     4.20    0.85
Professional support system               300     3.78    0.75
Access to specialized training            308     4.21    0.75
Mentors                                   299     4.12    0.79
Role models                               309     4.16    0.79
Networking                                304     3.99    0.81

Family factors
Family responsibilities                   305     3.49    1.20
Time with family                          305     3.35    1.21
Pregnancy                                 103     2.89    0.71
Support received from family              310     4.30    0.77

Miscellaneous
Geographical location                     304     3.91    1.03
Geographical moves (relocation)           242     3.72    1.20
Time for outside interests                313     3.43    1.20
Availability of financial resources       304     3.83    1.01
Support received from friends             313     4.02    0.77
Chance                                    276     3.67    0.84

Item                                       t       p(a)

Personal characteristics
Competency in professional/technical
  skills                                  1.33    .186
Competency in nonclinical skills (eg,
  business and computer skills)           3.54    .001(*)
Age                                       0.80    .424
Sex                                       8.60    .001(*)
Racial/ethnic origin                      2.70    .007
Sexual orientation                        0.67    .502
Personal motivation/ambition              1.54    .125

Occupational indicators
Practice environment                      2.50    .013
Salary                                    2.24    .025
Interaction with professional
  colleagues                              0.51    .611
Flexibility of practice conditions        2.88    .044
Professional support system               1.83    .067
Access to specialized training            0.10    .333
Mentors                                   0.91    .363
Role models                               0.10    .916
Networking                                1.54    .124

Family factors
Family responsibilities                   7.45    .001(*)
Time with family                          5.11    .001(*)
Pregnancy                                 3.36    .001(*)
Support received from family              0.32    .752

Miscellaneous
Geographical location                     0.62    .537
Geographical moves (relocation)           2.40    .017
Time for outside interests                4.22    .001(*)
Availability of financial resources       1.84    .066
Support received from friends             2.68    .007(*)
Chance                                    0.33    .741

Asterisk (*) indicates where [is less than or equal to] .01.

Table 4. Rank Order of Items Influencing the Achievement of Career Success(a)

Item                                              Female     Male

1.  Competency in professional skills                1         2
2.  Personal motivation                              2         1
3.  Flexible practice conditions                     3         7
4.  Practice environment                           4-5         3
5.  Support from family                            4-5         4
6.  Interaction with professional colleagues         6         5
7.  Access to specialized training                   7         6
8.  Support from friends                           8-9     11-12
9.  Role models                                    8-9         9
10. Networking                                      10        13
11. Mentors                                         11        13
12. Salary                                          12         8
13. Professional support system                  13-14        16
14. Geographic location                          13-14        14
15. Competency in nonclinical skills                15     11-12
16. Availability of financial resources             16        15
17. Chance                                          17        18
18. Geographic moves                                18        17
19. Age                                             19        22
20. Time for outside interests                      20        20
21. Race                                            21        24
22. Sexual orientation                              22        25
23. Sex                                             23        21
24. Time with family                                24        23
25. Family responsibilities                         25        19
26. Pregnancy                                       26        26

(a) Rank-order differences between female and male respondents that are greater than or equal to 2 units are underlined. Items 23 through 26 were rated between negative and neutral by women. Item 26 was rated between negative and neutral by men. All other items received positive ratings.

The third part of the questionnaire utilized the Rosenberg Serf-Esteem Scale (RSE).[41] This scale consists of 10 items for measuring self-esteem and provides a cumulative self-esteem score. Respondents rated their agreement with the items using a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). The 5 negatively worded items were recoded during data entry so that direction of responses to all items was consistent. After recoding, item scores were aggregated to determine the overall self-esteem score. The RSE, originally developed for adolescents, has been used successfully studies of adults, with Cronbach's alpha values reported between .7 and .9.[42] Examples of items were "I certainly feel useless at times" and "I take a positive attitude toward myself" (Tab. 5).

Table 5.
Gender and Self-Esteem
                                                   Female
Item                                        n     [bar]X    SD

On the whole, I am
satisfied with myself                     1,553    3.39     0.57

At times, I do not
think I am no good at all(a)              1,552    3.26     0.77

I feel that I have a
number of good qualities                  1,553    3.55     0.51

I am able to do things as
well as other people                      1,550    3.37     0.55

I feel l do have much to
be proud of(a)                            1,552    3.65     0.62

I certainly do not feel
useless at times(a)                       1,552    3.40     0.75

I feel that I am a person of worth,
at least on an equal plane with others    1,548    3.56     0.54

I do not wish I could have
more respect for myself(a)                1,543    3.16     0.84

All in all, I am inclined to
feel that I am not a failure(a)           1,550    3.77     0.50

I take a positive attitude
toward myself                             1,530    3.40     0.58

Total score                               1,514   34.59     4.09

                                                 Male
Item                                       n    [bar]X    SD

On the whole, I am
satisfied with myself                     317    3.44     0.54

At times, I do not
think I am no good at all(a)              317    3.37     0.72

I feel that I have a
number of good qualities                  317    3.64     0.48

I am able to do things as
well as other people                      316    3.52     0.51

I feel l do have much to
be proud of(a)                            317    3.70     0.55

I certainly do not feel
useless at times(a)                       317    3.41     0.75

I feel that I am a person of worth,
at least on an equal plane with others    317    3.64     0.51

I do not wish I could have
more respect for myself(a)                316    3.28     0.81

All in all, I am inclined to
feel that I am not a failure(a)           317    3.84     0.53

I take a positive attitude
toward myself                             316    3.53     0.64

Total score                               314   35.39     3.83

Item                                       t        p(b)

On the whole, I am
satisfied with myself                     1.69    .092

At times, I do not
think I am no good at all(a)              2.33    .020

I feel that I have a
number of good qualities                  2.69    .007(*)

I am able to do things as
well as other people                      4.19    .001(*)

I feel I do have much to
be proud of(a)                            1.42    .155

I certainly do not feel
useless at times(a)                       0.02    .982

I feel that I am a person of worth,
at least on an equal plane with others    2.52    .012

I do not wish I could have
more respect for myself(a)                2.28    .023

All in all, I am inclined to
feel that I am not a failure(a)           2.26    .024

I take a positive attitude
toward myself                             3.24    .001(*)

Total score                               3.20    .001(*)

(a) Reworded because of recording for total score.

(b) Asterisk (*) indicates gender differences where [is less than or equal to]-.01.

Descriptive information consisted of fill-in-the-blank or multiple-choice questions concerning age, employment setting, length and type of employment, and information on family responsibilities. In addition, a single question about respondents' personal assessment of how successful they felt was included, using a 5-point Likert-type scale (Tabs. 6-8).

Table 6.
Gender and Employment by Facility

                                  Female           Male
Type of Facility                n       %       n       %

Hospital                       286    18.3      43    13.7
Rehabilitation center
  (inpatient/outpatient)        94     6.0       7     2.2
Rehabilitation center
  (outpatient)                  59     3.8      17     5.4
Private physical
  therapy office               325    20.8     106    33.3
Physician's office              18     1.2       4     1.3
Skilled nursing                177    11.4       9     6.0
Home care                      216    13.9      26     8.2
School system                  116     7.4       6     1.9
Outpatient facility            131     8.4      38    12.0
Academic institution            72     4.6      33    10.4
Research center                  1     0.1       2     0.6
Industry                         6     0.4       3     0.9
Other                           46     3.0      10     3.2
Missing                         11     0.7       3     0.9

                                  Total
Type of Facility                n       %

Hospital                       329    17.7
Rehabilitation center
  (inpatient/outpatient)       101     5.4
Rehabilitation center
  (outpatient)                  76     4.1
Private physical
  therapy office               431    23.1
Physician's office              22     1.2
Skilled nursing                196    10.5
Home care                      242    13.0
School system                  122     6.6
Outpatient facility            169     9.1
Academic institution           105     5.6
Research center                  3     0.2
Industry                         9     0.5
Other                           56     3.0
Missing
Table 7.
Family Responsibilities
                                          Female
                                   n      [bar]X      SD

No. of dependents                 860       2.0       1.5
Hours per week in child car       642      52.0      32.2
Hours per week in elder car       162       9.3      19.5

                                           Male
                                   n      [bar]X      SD

No. of dependents                  163       2.5       1.7
Hours per week in child car        163      24.0      22.9
Hours per week in elder car         24       4.0       6.8

                                  t           p(a)

No. of dependents                -3.73        .001(*)
Hours per week in child car      12.61        .001(*)
Hours per week in elder car       2.59        .010(*)

(a) Asterisk (*) indicates gender differences where P [is less than or equal to] .01.

Table 8.
Select Descriptive Item Correlations to "How Successful I
Feel"(a)
                                Total Group
                           n         r         P

Age                      1,869      .08    .001(*)
Years in practice        1,856      .11    .001(*)
Years in position        1,855      .08    .001(*)
Hours per week in
 child car                 803     -.10    .002(*)
Actual salary            1,757      .21    .001(*)

                                   Female
                           n         r         P

Age                      1,553      .06     .006(*)
Years in practice        1,542      .10     .001(*)
Years in position        1,539      .06     .014
Hours per week in
 child car                 640      .05     .092
Actual salary            1,468      .18     .001(*)

                                    Male
                           n         r         P

Age                        316      .14    .006(*)
Years in practice          314      .21    .001(*)
Years in position          316      .19    .001(*)
Hours per week in
 child car                 163      .02    .039
Actual salary              289      .28    .001(*)

(a) Pearson correlations (r) used to determine relationship between items. Asterisk (*) indicates gender differences where P [is less than or equal to] .01.

A pilot test was conducted by distributing 80 questionnaires to US physical therapists at the 12th International Congress of the World Confederation for Physical Therapy in Washington, DC, in June 1995. Two of the authors approached well-known US physical therapy leaders in research, practice, and education for their input. The authors also handed out questionnaires to random US physical therapist conference attendees. Subjects were asked to add suggested items to the questionnaire and to make comments on any aspect of the questionnaire. About 60 survey instruments were returned. As a result of the feedback, questions were reworded in an attempt to improve clarity, objectivity, and completeness.

The final version of the questionnaire was mailed in late November 1995 to 5,000 randomly selected active members of APTA. A total of 1,906 (38.1%) usable survey instruments were returned in mid-December 1995 and entered into a data file.

Data analysis was accomplished using the SPSS program, version 4.0.([dagger]) Analysis was performed on the total data file and then separately by gender. Descriptive statistics were computed for all items. A total self-esteem score was calculated by summing responses to the individual items on the self-esteem section of the questionnaire after negatively worded items were recoded. Gender differences were determined by t tests or chi-square tests. To control for inflation of the Type I error rate, univariate tests were interpreted using the more conservative alpha level of .01. Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated between demographic items and overall career success and self-esteem. Differences between correlations were calculated using a Z statistic.

Results

Respondents

The respondents' median age was 38 years ([bar]X = 38.08, SD = 6.98, range = 23-71). The participants had a median of 13 years of practice experience ([bar]X = 14.04, SD = 6.87, range = 1-46). Eighty-three percent of the respondents were female, and 76% of all respondents were married. Seventy-four percent of the respondents practiced on a full-time basis, 24% practiced part-time, and 2% were unemployed. There were gender-based differences in the employment status of these respondents ([Chi-square] = 95.7, P [is less than] .01). Men were more likely than women to practice on a full-time basis. Table 6 indicates employment settings. Differences were also found in level of responsibility and practice setting based on the sex of the respondents. Men were more likely than women to hold positions of greater responsibility, as discerned from a position title ([Chi-square] = 106.9, P [is less than] .01), and to practice in a setting that afforded them the opportunity for greater levels of autonomy (eg, private practice) ([Chi-square] = 83.3, P [is less than] .01).

Seventy-one percent of the male therapists had dependents, as compared with 55% of the female therapists. Fifty-one percent of the female therapists, however, reported themselves as the primary providers of child care, and 14% reported elder care responsibility. Among male therapists, only 2.6% indicated that they were the primary providers of child care, and 4.1% reported elder care responsibilities. Table 7 displays the differences between female and male respondents based on number of dependents and time devoted to dependent care.

Perceptions About Career Success in Physical Therapy When therapists were asked to indicate how successful they perceived themselves to be on a scale of 1 (very, unsuccessful) to 5 (very successful), male and female therapists rated themselves as successful in their careers. Male therapists rated themselves higher in career success than did female therapists (male therapists: [bar]X = 4.23, SD = 0.64; female therapists: [bar]X = 4.06, SD = 0.65; P [is less than] .001).

Table 1 summarizes physical therapists' responses regarding ratings of 23 factors important to defining their career success. Participants were requested to score how important each variable listed was as an indicator of their career success on a 5-point scale (1 = very unimportant, 5 = very important). A score of 3 indicated a neutral effect.

Men and women rated 12 of these items between 4 (important) and 5 (very important) (scores averaging above 4). The 12 items were (1) improvement of patient health, (2) achievement of personal career goals, (3) recognition as a professional by other health care professionals, (4) recognition as a professional by patients and other members of the public, (5) respect from other physical therapists, (6) balance of professional role with other roles and responsibilities, (7) personal satisfaction from career, (8) advancement of knowledge and' skills through continuing education (short courses), (9) ethical practice, (10) variety provided by work environment, (11) challenge provided by work environment, and (12) latitude in handling work-related responsibilities. Nine items were scored between neutral and important. The 9 items were (1) attainment of supervisory status, (2) employment in a full-time position, (3) high income, (4) receipt of substantial benefits, (5) advancement of knowledge and skills through continuing higher education (post-professional degrees), (6) advancement of others' knowledge, (7) achievement of certification as a clinical specialist, (8) participation in professional association activities, and (9) provision of free services or services at reduced fees. Two items were rated just above neutral or between neutral and unimportant. These items were (1) attainment of an executive position and (2) appointment or election to a leadership position in a professional association.

Gender differences in these items defining career success were analyzed in 2 ways. The first analysis was a comparison of mean scores of importance for each item (Tab. 1). The second analysis was a rank-order comparison by gender (Tab. 2). The first analysis provided an indication of gender differences with respect to how important an individual item is to describing career success. Only 8 of the 23 items showed gender differences. Of the 8 differences, 5 were for items rated as important to very important. Women rated these 5 items as having greater importance to describing career success than did men. These items were (1) respect from other physical therapists (women: [bar]X = 4.41, men: [bar]X = 4.22, P = .001), (2) balance of roles (women: [bar]X = 4.50, men: [bar]X = 4.37, P = .003), (3) advancement through continuing education (eg, short courses) (women: [bar]X = 4.43, men: [bar]X = 4.28), (4) variety in work environment (women: [bar]X = 4.21, men: [bar]X = 4.05, P = .002), and (5) challenge in work (women: [bar]X = 4.46, men: [bar]X = 4.35, P = .004). One of the gender differences was for an item rated neutral to important. This item, full-time employment, was of less importance in describing career success to women than to men (women: [bar]X = 3.20, men: [bar]X = 3.81, P = .001). Two gender differences were found in the lowest-ranked items: (1) attainment of an executive position (women: [bar]X = 2.85, men: [bar]X = 3.03, P = .010) and (2) appointment or election to a leadership position in a professional organization (women: [bar]X = 2.54, men: [bar]X = 2.72, P = .002). These items were rated of less importance by women than by men.

The second analysis of gender differences using rank-order comparisons showed how similar or dissimilar men and women rated these items relative to one another. All except 3 items were rated within 2 levels of each other. Full-time employment demonstrated the greatest rank-order discrepancy by 4 units (women: rank order = 19, men: rank order = 15). The other 2 items were 2 units apart. These items were recognition as a professional (women: rank order = 10, men: rank order = 8) and balance of professional roles and responsibilities (women: rank order = 4, men: rank order = 6).

We also investigated the relationship between specific, descriptive variables reported by participants and self-rated career success. Hours per week in child care was inversely correlated with perceived career success. These correlations are listed in Table 8. For the total group, age, years of practice, years in position, and salary were positively correlated with perceived career success. Salary demonstrated the strongest relationship with career success for all of these descriptive factors, especially for men (total group: r = .21, men: r = .28, women: r = .18). When separate gender analyses were performed, there was no relationship between how personally successful the participant felt she or he was and (1) hours per week spent in child care for both sexes (women: r = -.05, P = .092; men: r = -.02, P = .309) and (2) years spent in practice for women (r = .06, P = .014).

Factors That Influence Career Success

Participants were requested to score how each of 26 variables affected their career on a 5-point scale (1 = negative effect, 5 = positive effect). A score of 3 indicated a neutral effect. The majority of the indicators were rated as having positive effects on career success. Findings for these indicators are discussed according to the following categories: (1) personal characteristics, (2) occupational indicators, (3) family factors, and (4) miscellaneous variables (Tab. 3).

Personal characteristics. Therapists held themselves accountable for positively influencing their own career success. From the entire list of items in this part of the questionnaire, women and men identified personal motivation and professional competency as having the most positive effects on career success.

Other personal factors were also associated with positively influencing career success (Tab. 3). Both men and women cited their age as a positive factor. Men perceived competency in nonclinical skills as having a greater positive effect on career success, as compared with women (men: [bar]X = 4.02, women: [bar]X = 3.81, P = .001). Men rated their sex ([bar]X = 3.41) and race or ethnic origin ([bar]X = 3.17) as having positive influences. Women believed that their sex had a neutral effect ([bar]X = 2.98) and that their race or ethnic origin had a lesser positive effect ([bar]X = 3.07), as compared with men. Besides nonclinical skills, sex of the respondent demonstrated the only other gender difference in personal characteristics (P = .001)

Occupational indicators. Occupational indicators (ie, the practice environment, interaction with professional colleagues, flexibility of practice conditions, salary, access to specialized training, role models, mentors, a professional support system, and networking) demonstrated no gender differences (Tab. 3). All of these factors, except a professional support system, were considered strong, positive influences on career success (average scores at least 4). A professional support system was evaluated as having a positive effect, but at a lesser level.

Family factors. Men and women differed in several items pertaining to the perceived effects of family factors on career success, but they agreed that family support is related positively to career success (men: [bar]X = 4.30, women: [bar]X = 4.28, P = .752) (Tab. 3). Men rated family responsibilities as having a moderately positive effect on career success ([bar]X = 3.49). Women believed that this factor had a slight, negative effect ([bar]X = 2.93). The subjects' ratings for time with family followed a similar gender pattern (men: [bar]X = 3.35; women: [bar]X = 2.96). Pregnancy received the most negative ratings of all the items in this part of the questionnaire. Men and women perceived pregnancy as a negative influence on career success (men: [bar]X = 2.89; women: [bar]X = 2.63).

Miscellaneous variables. Both men and women perceived the following variables as having low to moderately positive influences on career success: geographic location, geographic relocation, availability of financial resources, and chance (Tab. 3). Men and women differed on their ratings of time for outside interests and support received from friends. Men believed that time for outside interests had a more positive effect on career success, as compared with women (men: [bar]X = 3.43, women: [bar]X = 3.11, P = .001). Women perceived support from friends as a more positive influence on career success, as compared with men (men: [bar]X = 4.02, women: [bar]X = 4.15, P = .007).

A rank-order analysis by gender of indicators related to enhancing or inhibiting career success also was conducted (Tab. 4). Eleven of the 26 items differed by 2 or more units in rank. These items were (1) flexible practice conditions (women: rank order = 3, men: rank order = 7), (2) support from friends (women: rank order = 8/9, men: rank order = 11/12), (3) networking (women: rank order = 10, men: rank order = 13), (4) mentors (women: rank order = 11, men: rank order = 13), (5) salary (women: rank order = 12, men: rank order = 8), (6) competency in nonclinical skills (women: rank order = 15, men: rank order = 11/12), (7) age (women: rank order = 19, men: rank order = 22), (8) race (women: rank order = 21, men: rank order = 24), (9) sexual orientation (women: rank order = 22, men: rank order = 25), (10) sex (women: rank order = 23, men: rank order = 21), and (11) family responsibilities (women: rank order = 25, men: rank order = 19). All items were rated as positive effects except that women rated their sex as having a neutral effect and family responsibilities as having negative effects.

Self-Esteem

Research questions addressed the extent to which men and women differ on self-esteem as well as the relationship between self-esteem and career success. Table 5 lists the individual statements used to determine the total self-esteem scores for men and women. The reliability of the total self-esteem index using Cronbach's alpha was .85. This measure demonstrates a good interrelationship between the items of this additive scale. Men scored higher than women on the majority of individual items as well as the total self-esteem scale. Both men and women reported high levels of self-esteem (men: [bar]X = 35.39, SD = 3.83; women: [bar]X = 34.59, SD = 2.63; P = .001).

When self-esteem was correlated with individual ratings of perceived career success, a moderate, positive relationship was found for women and men. The correlation for men was .43 (P = .001), and the correlation for women was .41 (P = .001). There was no difference between the 2 correlations (Z = .48, P = .631).

Discussion

Perceptions of Career Success

Hypotheses 1, 1a, 1b, 2, and 2a were supported by the results. Physical therapists described career success uniquely in comparison with other professionals who have been assessed to date. They associated internal indicators such as practicing ethically, improving patients' health, deriving personal satisfaction, and achieving personal goals as more important than external factors represented by items such as high income and attaining administrative or executive status.

Thus, as we predicted, internal factors rather than external factors appear to be of greater importance to describing personal physical therapy career success. For example, when select external measures from the descriptive portion of the questionnaire were correlated with career success, salary demonstrated a moderate, positive association with career success for both sexes (Tab. 8). Salary showed the strongest relationship with career success among these items (men: r = .28, women: r = .18). Yet, when the importance of income in defining career success was rated with a list of internal and external factors, it was found to be of less importance than half of the other indicators in that part of the questionnaire. High income ranked 13th out of the 23 items (Tab. 2). Items representing position and status were ranked even lower. Achievement of supervisory status was ranked 18th, and attainment of an executive position was ranked 22nd. These findings suggest that determining career success from measures such as salary and position does not adequately reflect physical therapists' views about this complex concept. When measuring career success, a combination of subjective and objective measures is indicated. Further investigation is needed to develop and refine a valid and reliable measure of career success for physical therapists.

The physical therapists surveyed described themselves as successful. The findings imply that an employment environment with the following characteristics provides a climate for success. This environment includes fostering. ethical practice, allowing achievement of personal goals, ensuring time for high-quality patient care, promoting recognition and respect, providing career ladders, giving adequate compensation, and encouraging professional support. Employers seeking to facilitate career development may find the evaluation of these factors within their site helpful in developing strategies. Therapists looking to improve or maintain career success also can evaluate employment settings using these factors.

Gender similarities rather than differences prevailed when physical therapists were asked to rate the importance of various factors to career success. The findings indicate that, generally, male and female therapists agree in their description of career success. In contrast to other studies and to hypothesis 2b, male and female physical therapists rate the importance of income, benefits, and supervisory status similarly with respect to the definition of career success.

Differences in responses to family issues suggest that there is a relationship of gender and family responsibilities (eg, time with family, balancing roles) to career success. Career success perspectives and influences described in this study can be analyzed with respect to reports of career experiences from the ongoing APTA membership profiles.[4,5] The membership profiles document that more male physical therapists than female physical therapists practice full-time. We found that men placed greater importance on full-time employment in relationship to defining career success (men: [bar]X = 3.81, women: [bar]X = 3.20, P = .001; men: rank order = 15, women: rank order = 19).

When defining career success, women place greater importance on balancing roles (women: [bar]X = 4.50, men: [bar]X = 4.37, P = .003; women: rank order = 4, men: rank order = 6). Part-time employment and career interruptions are employment choices available when family demands conflict with employment. Social acceptance and the ability to exercise these options may reflect why time spent in child care was not correlated with self-rated career success for women (r = -.05, P = .092). Almost one quarter (23.1%) of the female physical therapists were employed part-time in both 1993 and 1996.[4, 5] In 1993, only 4.3% of male physical therapists reported part-time employment.4 In 1996, this percentage was 2%.[5] Career interruptions were almost 4 times more likely to occur for female therapists in 1993 and 1996.[4,5] The 1993 membership profile reported that 39.8% of female therapists stated that they had discontinuous employment, whereas 10.2% of male therapists stated that they had discontinuous employment.4 In 1996, 34.8% of women reported that their careers had been interrupted, whereas 8.9% of men reported this characteristic.[5] Women's career interruptions were related primarily to raising children. When men interrupted their careers, the reasons were to return for more education or to change careers.

Although men and women rate the importance of income, benefits, and attaining supervisory status equally with respect to career success, the APTA membership profiles[4,5] continue to report large wage gaps between male and female physical therapists. Men earn substantially more income in each employment category analyzed. Men also continue to hold more administrative positions and are more likely to own private practices.([double dagger]) Findings from a study by Raz et al[43] addressing the effects of family demands on female physical therapists suggest that women balance the time and energy demands of family responsibilities and careers by de-emphasizing participation in continuing education and professional organizations and by choosing not to assume administrative and supervisory positions. These authors concluded that female physical therapists with high caregiving responsibilities often place less emphasis on income and career development and advancement in order to meet family needs, especially when their children are young.

These circumstances may explain, in part, why female therapists were found to rate themselves as less successful than male therapists, as predicted in hypothesis 2a. Our data suggest that the wage gaps between men and women may be linked to women having greater home demands and less time for professional development activities.

The profile of APTA membership raises many questions. The membership is approximately 70% female. Most women are married, and the majority have children.[4,5] What is the impact on our profession of the part-time practice patterns of some women? How can optimal professional success be accomplished by women who are challenged in their attempts to balance career and family responsibilities? How does perceived career success compare between women who are employed part-time and women who are employed full-time? What support systems are available to assist women with family responsibilities, and how, when, and why do women access these supports?

Our findings imply that family responsibilities are important to women's definitions of career success and have greater influences on career success for women than for men. Women's greater emphasis given to balancing career and family, combined with more family responsibilities, may be related to others' reports of professional and economic inequities in physical therapy. Furthermore, long-term studies on how gender and family affect career experiences and career success are recommended for the purpose of identifying barriers and "promoting mechanisms to eliminate or reduce barriers to professional growth and career development" as well as "promoting physical therapy as a life-long profession" (goals 2 and 3 of APTA's Plan to Improve the Status of Women in Physical Therapy[44]).

Our results are consistent with findings from other studies[12,45] that career success for women depends to a greater degree on family issues. Together, the relative importance of the parenting role, the spousal role, and the employment role influence the definition of career success. When women's life interests are different from those of men, their career development also may differ.[12,45] Addressing issues and developing strategies to assist the majority of the Association's members in balancing roles may lead to improving the professional and economic status of all physical therapists.

Factors That Influence Career Success

Hypotheses 3, 3a, 3b, and 3c were supported. Men and women agree that the 2 factors that exert the most positive influence on their perception of career success are motivation and competency in professional or technical skills. It is not surprising, given the results regarding the importance of internal factors in describing career success, that they also would be felt to be more powerful for achieving it.

Men rated competency in nonclinical skills (eg, business and computer skills) as a greater positive influence on career success than did women. This finding may reflect men's greater prevalence in supervisory and administrative functions and their greater participation in private practice settings. Nevertheless, men appear to have a broader perspective on skills related to achieving career success than women do. An area of further investigation that stems from this finding is to determine whether female physical therapists' nonclinical skills are less than those of male physical therapists. Opportunities may be lost if women possess fewer nonclinical skills or fail to promote their use.

Occupational indicators were rated as positive influences on career success by both men and women, especially the practice environment, interaction with professional colleagues, and flexibility of practice conditions. This finding suggests that the quality of the employment environment plays a key role in career success. Many of these factors reflected the positive influence of learning and sharing through professional and interpersonal relationships. Employer assistance in developing and encouraging these types of relationships (eg, mentors, role models, networks, collegiality) is recommended as a strategy to facilitate feelings of success.

When the item ratings are placed in rank order by gender, flexibility, in practice conditions was third for women and seventh for men (Tab. 4). Caregivers responsible for young children or assisting dependent parents can have great difficulty finding and maintaining dependable sources of help in order for them to remain employed. When situations such as illnesses with dependents or hired assistants, school closings, or transportation needs arise, a flexible schedule assists the employee to balance routine or unexpected family responsibilities. Women reported twice the hours spent in family care than men reported (women and child care: [bar]X = 52 hours per week, men and child care: [bar]X = 24 hours per week; women and care of elderly persons: [bar]X = 9.3 hours per week, men and care of elderly persons: [bar]X = 4 hours per week). This higher numbers of hours with family responsibilities provides a rationale for women's priority of flexible practice conditions as a positive effect in achieving career success. Men also rated time for outside interests as a more positive effect for achieving career success than women did (men: [bar]X = 3.43, women: [bar]X = 3.11, P = .001). The greater number of hours spent in family responsibilities may decrease the likelihood of women being able to participate in many outside interests.

Another set of comparative rankings that stands out in the occupational characteristics category is salary. Salary was ranked 12th for women and 8th for men as having a positive effect on achieving career success. This difference indicated that even though salary is not a key factor in defining career success, it acts as a motivating factor for achieving career success--more so for men than for women.

Another finding of our study was that friends' support was a greater positive influence on career success for women than for men (women: [bar]X = 4.15, men: [bar]X = 4.02, P = .007). Women have been found to have larger social networks than men have and to receive more support from their social networks. Research is needed to determine how women and men utilize social networks (eg, friends and family) to achieve career success.

How family factors influence the achievement of career success showed the highest number of gender differences with respect to the total number of items in its category. Despite a strong, positive influence of family support in relationship to career success reported by men and women, women perceived that the time spent with their families and their family responsibilities were not positive influences. Men rated these factors as positive influences. Family responsibilities were ranked 25th by women and 19th by men out of 26 items (Tab. 4). Pregnancy had a more negative impact on career success for women than for men and was ranked last by both sexes. These findings support the greater importance of balancing roles for women discussed previously. Higher family responsibilities also may explain, in part, why women rate their sex as a neutral factor in achieving career success, whereas men rate their sex as a positive factor (women: [bar]X = 2.98, men: [bar]X = 3.41, P = .001).

Self-Esteem

Hypotheses 4, 4a, and 4b were supported. Although men scored higher than women on the majority of the individual items related to self-esteem and had a higher total score on this part of the questionnaire, these differences do not appear to have any practical application. This finding is due to the high levels of self-esteem reported by both groups of therapists (men: [bar]X = 35.39, SD = 3.83; women: [bar]X = 34.59, SD = 4.09; possible range = 10-40). The findings imply that interventions to improve the self-esteem levels of female physical therapists are not indicated. Although self-esteem is associated with career success (women: r = .41, men: r = .43, P = .631), there are no gender differences. Other measures need to be investigated with respect to differences in career experiences between men and women in physical therapy.

Limitations

Not all influences on success could be included in one survey, and we did not investigate job value, job involvement, specific motivational factors (eg, peer or spouse pressure, lifestyle desires), or role stress. Our focus on overall career success may not account for differences in various facets of success such as job status, salary level, or relationship to lifestyle. In addition, the first part of the questionnaire was not designed to give a total score, which precluded doing multiple regression analyses to predict career success. The single question on career success had 5 response options. The majority of respondents selected 2 choices, also hindering the use of multiple regression to predict career success. Individual interpretation of the meaning of the items is a possible source of measurement error.

Although the APTA membership profiles as well as our questionnaire were mailed to random samples of the physical therapist membership, comparisons between our data and the findings in the profiles represent a different pool of subjects and a different time period. Even though the response rate was relatively low, no major differences were found between the survey respondents and APTA members with respect to the descriptive items shown in Tables 6 through 8.[4,5] We cannot be certain, however, that the results represent all physical therapists. Non-APTA members have different employment patterns and earn less income compared with APTA members.[46] It is conceivable, therefore, that non-APTA members may view their career success differently than our survey respondents do.

The problems that arise when the majority of the survey items are attitudinal in nature include a varied interpretation of items by the participants and the fact that the attitudes the respondents display are taken from a single point in time and are conducive to change.

Conclusion

Our study provides a description of how physical therapists uniquely perceive career success. We identified factors that influence the achievement of career success. Although there is much agreement between male and female therapists regarding the definition of career success, there is less agreement on factors affecting its achievement. Differences in family issues, the importance of full-time practice, and the priority of flexibility in practice conditions stand out. Our findings are consistent with those of other studies that family responsibilities are important to women's definition of career success and have a greater impact on career success for women than for men. Self-esteem levels were high for both male and female therapists. Low self-esteem in women, therefore, is not a factor that needs to be considered to explain gender discrepancies in (1) perceptions of physical therapy career success or (2) measures reported in the APTA membership profiles.

(*) The APTA Specialist Certification Department indicates that of 2,028 specialists certified through 1997, 57.5% are female and 42.5% are male. The physical therapy profession is composed of approximately 70% women.

([dagger]) SPSS Inc, 444 N Michigan Ave, Chicago, IL 60611.

([double dagger]) Examples of wage discrepancies include self-employed average wages for full-time employment in 1993; women earned $93,000, and men earned $142,000. In 1996, women earned $73,000, and men earned $124,000. For full-time salaried employees, in 1993, women earned $49,000, and men earned $63,000. In 1996, women earned $53,000, and men earned $61,000. In 1993, 40.7% of male physical therapists reported themselves sole owners or partners of a practice; 13% of women were in this category. In 1996, 26.9% of male therapists and 11.1% of female therapists were owners or partners. In 1993, 19.8% of the men and 14.1% of the women surveyed reported themselves as directors of physical therapy. In 1996, 22.4% of the men and 12.2% of the women were directors.

References

[1] 1983 Active Membership Profile Report. Washington, DC: American Physical Therapy Association; 1985.

[2] 1987 Active Membership Profile Report. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1988.

[3] 1990 Active Membership Profile Report. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1991.

[4] 1993 Active Membership Profile Report. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1994.

[5] 1996 Physical Therapist Membership Profile. APTA Research Briefing. 1997;4(2).

[6] Betz NE, Hackett G. The relationship of career-related self-efficacy expectations to perceived career options in college women and men. J Consult Psychol. 1981;23:399-410.

[7] Hackett G, Betz NE, Doty MS. The development of a taxonomy of career competencies for professional women. Sex Roles. 1985;12: 393-409.

[8] Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc; 1986.

[9] Reagan B, Blaxall M, eds. Women and the Workplace: The Implications of Occupational Segregation. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press; 1976.

[10] Reskin RF, Hartmann HI, eds. Women's Work, Men's Work: Sex Segregation on the Job. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1986.

[11] Gender issues in the workplace. Physical Therapy Today. May-June 1995;18:4-48.

[12] Melamed T. Career success: the moderating effect of gender. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 1995;47:35-60.

[13] Barley SR. Careers, identities, and institutions: the legacy of the Chicago School of Sociology. In: Arthur MB, Hall DT, Lawrence BS, eds. Handbook of Career Theory. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1989:41-65.

[14] Tharenou P, Latimer S, Conroy D. How do you make it to the top? An examination of influences on women's and men's managerial advancement. Academy of Management Journal 1994;37:899-931.

[15] Judge TA, Boudreau JW, Bretz RD Jr. Job and life attitudes of male executives. J Appl Psychol. 1994;79:767-782.

[16] Jaskolka G, Beyer JM, Trice HM. Measuring and predicting managerial success. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 1985;26:189-205.

[17] Peluchette JVE. Subjective career success: the influence of individual difference, family, and organizational variables. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 1993;43:198-208.

[18] Poole ME, Langan-Fox J, Omodei M. Sex differences in perceived career success. Genet Soc Gen Psychol Monogr. 1990;117:155-175.

[19] Judge TA, Hulin CL. Job satisfaction as a reflection of disposition: a multiple source causal analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 1993;78:939-948.

[20] Bedian AG, Burke BG, Moffett RG. Outcomes of work-family conflict among married male and female professionals. Journal of Management. 1988;14:475-491.

[21] Gutek BA, Searle S, Klepa L. Rational versus gender role explanations for work-family conflict. J Appl Psychol. 1991;76:560-568.

[22] Frone MR, Russell M, Cooper ML. Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: testing a model of the work-family interface. J Appl Psychol. 1992;77:65-78.

[23] Gattiker UE, Larwood L. Subjective career success: a study of managers and support personnel. Journal of Business and Psychology. 1986;1:78-94.

[24] Hofer SM, Stallings MC, Reynolds CA, et al. What criteria define a successful career in psychology? It depends on who you ask. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1994;54:447-458.

[25] Stoll CS. Female and Male: Socialization, Social Roles, and Social Structure. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm C Brown Publishers; 1978.

[26] Wilgosh L. The underachievement of girls: a social rather than a gender issue. Education Canada. 1994;34:18-23.

[27] O'Rourke KD. Success and self-esteem: what women think of themselves determines their career paths. Physical Therapy Today. May-June 1995;18:22-25.

[28] Stevens CK, Bavetta AG, Gist ME. Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: the role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control. J Appl Psychol. 1993;78:723-735.

[29] Elizur D. Gender and work values: a comparative analysis. J Soc Psychol. 1994;134:201-212.

[30] Long J, Porter KL. Multiple roles of midlife women: a case for new directions in theory, research, and policy. In: Baruch G, Brooks-Gunn J, eds. Women in Midlife. New York, NY: Plenum Publishing Corp; 1984:109-159.

[31] Pearlin LI. Sex roles and depression. In: Datan N, Ginsberg LH, eds. Life-Span Developmental Psychology: Normative Life Crisis. New York, NY: Academic Press Inc; 1975:191-207.

[32] Holland MG, Black CH, Miner JB. Using managerial role motivation theory to predict career success. Health Care Manage Rev. 1987;12:57-64.

[33] Kassner MW. Attributions about subjectivity defined career success in different occupations. Journal of Business and Psychology. 1990;5:37-46.

[34] Dougherty E. Entrepreneurs at heart: Want to run your own shop? You have lots of company, according to our career satisfaction survey. R&D Magazine. May 1991;33:69-69.

[35] Igbaria M, Wormley WM. Organizational experiences and career success of MIS professionals and managers: an examination of race differences. MIS Quarterly. 1992;254:507-529.

[36] Dubin R, Champoux JE. Workers' central life interests and personality characteristics. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 1975;6:165-174.

[37] Goh SC. Sex differences in perceptions of interpersonal work style, career emphasis, supervisory mentoring behavior, and job satisfaction. Sex Roles. 1991;24:701-710.

[38] Pfeffer JR, Ross J. The effects of marriage and a working wife on occupational and wage attainment. Administration Science Quarterly. 1982;27:66-80.

[39] Gattiker UE, Larwood L. Predictors for managers' career mobility, success, and satisfaction. Human Relations. 1988;41:569-591.

[40] Chi-Ching EY. Perceptions of external barriers and the career success of female managers in Singapore. J Soc Psychol. 1992;132: 661-674.

[41] Rosenberg M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1965.

[42] Alexander GL. Social Support, Self-Esteem, and Medication-Taking Behavior in Older Adults. Ann Arbor, Mich: The University of Michigan School of Public Health; 1991. Dissertation.

[43] Raz P, Jensen GM, Walter J, Drake LM. Perspectives on gender and professional issues among female physical therapists. Phys Ther. 1991; 71:530-540.

[44] Plan to Improve the Status of Women in Physical Therapy. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1992.

[45] Keown A, Keown C. Factors of success for women in business. International Journal of Women's Studies. 1985;8:278-285.

[46] 1990 Former Active Member Profile. Alexandria, Va: American Physical Therapy Association; 1991.

CK Rozier, PhD, PT, is Professor and Dean, School of Physical Therapy, Texas Woman's University, Box 425766, Denton, TX 76204 (USA) ([e-mail]). Address all correspondence to Dr Rozier.

MJ Raymond, PT, is a doctoral candidate at the School of Public Health, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich, and Adjunct Faculty in Physical Therapy, Oakland University, Rochester, Mich.

MS Goldstein, EdD, is Director of Research, American Physical Therapy Association, Alexandria, Va.

BL Hamilton, PhD, is Professor, Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Texas Woman's University.

This study was approved by the Human Subjects Committee at Texas Woman's University.

This article was submitted April 18, 1997, and was accepted February 9, 1998.