Gender Differences in Science Education: The double-edged role of prior knowledge in physics.This study investigated gender-related differences in prior knowledge in physics that were present before the start of initial physics instruction and the influence of prior knowledge in physics on future achievement in 8th grade German physics courses. The present data was collected prior to initial physics instruction. Mildly gifted students (average IQ= 111) in the 7th grade of German Gymnasium gymnasium In Germany, a state-maintained secondary school that prepares pupils for higher academic education. This type of nine-year school originated in Strasbourg in 1537. (547 girls and 641 boys) were asked about their prior knowledge in physics. In comparison to boys, many girls achieved lower overall-scores in the applied test of prior knowledge in physics. These findings were strongest for questions dealing with the more theoretical concept of mechanics. Only moderate gender-differences appeared in areas concerning everyday experiences. As expected, girls received poorer mid-year grades. In predicting subsequent achievement in physics, neither prior knowledge nor ability explained the gender differences evident in this study. Furthermore, the results verify that gifted children, who have acquired substantial amounts of prior knowledge in physics, have problems replacing (faulty fault·y adj. fault·i·er, fault·i·est 1. Containing a fault or defect; imperfect or defective. 2. Obsolete Deserving of blame; guilty. ) naive physical concepts with proper concepts. This difficulty was more pronounced among the boys. Gender-related differences are well documented in achievement in physics (see Ziegler & Heller, 1997). Traditionally, girls produce poorer scholastic performances and receive lower marks than boys and these performance differences intensify in·ten·si·fy v. in·ten·si·fied, in·ten·si·fy·ing, in·ten·si·fies v.tr. 1. To make intense or more intense: over the course of the scholastic process. The consequences become obvious when viewing participation rates in advanced courses offered by German Gymnasiums (secondary level college preparatory schools preparatory school: see school. preparatory school School that prepares students for entrance to a higher school. In Europe, where secondary education has been selective, preparatory schools have been those that catered to pupils wishing to enter ). The percent of girls participating in physics courses in Germany for the school year 1995-96 was only 14,3%(1). Similarly, low participation rates turn up for comparable university majors and career fields. These differences in female and male participation rates in the science area cannot be explained by ability differences alone (cf. Heller & Ziegler, 1996). Furthermore, differences in achievement cannot be explained by ability since even high ability girls score less well than their male counterparts (e.g. Benbow & Lubinski, 1995; Ziegler, Heller & Broome, 1996). Thus, explanations for different achievement results in physics based on the giftedness gift·ed adj. 1. Endowed with great natural ability, intelligence, or talent: a gifted child; a gifted pianist. 2. variable obviously cannot work. However, recent studies show that the hypothesis of different cognitive abilities of boys and girls boys and girls mercurialisannua. required for such a subject as physics is not adequately supported, but rather provides evidence for comparable abilities (Sroke, 1989; Callahan, 1991; Beerman, Heller & Menacher, 1992). Although the causes for gender differences in physics are still disputed in the literature, the focus of research has shifted during the last few years towards explanations based on differing self-related cognitions and more socialization socialization /so·cial·iza·tion/ (so?shal-i-za´shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so·cial·i·za·tion n. oriented o·ri·ent n. 1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia. 2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality. b. A pearl having exceptional luster. 3. approaches. Noteworthy among the latest explanatory ex·plan·a·to·ry adj. Serving or intended to explain: an explanatory paragraph. ex·plan theories (for an overview see Ziegler & Heller, 1997; Beerman et al., 1992) is the amount of importance attached to various differing socialization experiences attributed to gender which can, to a certain extent, be effective even before physics instruction has started. These socialization experiences can be subdivided into two components: self related cognitions, particularly attribution at·tri·bu·tion n. 1. The act of attributing, especially the act of establishing a particular person as the creator of a work of art. 2. style, self-concept or implicit theories of abilities; and previous experiences in physics such as in optics or electronics. Research shows that boys prove themselves to be significantly more adept at both of these components (Ziegler, Heller & Broome, 1996; Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Licht Licht (Light), subtitled "The Seven Days of the Week," is a cycle of seven operas composed by Karlheinz Stockhausen which, in total, lasts over 29 hours. Origin The project, originally titled Hikari , 1980; Fennema & Sherman, 1977; Eccles, Wigfield, Harold & Blumenfeld, 1993; Wigfield & Eccles, 1994). In this study we consider previous experience as well as prior knowledge in physics, and investigate whether gender-specific differences in these variables can explain the performance differences observed between boys and girls in physics. We are also interested in performance development of gifted children who have substantial amounts of prior knowledge in physics resulting in a large amount of involuntarily in·vol·un·tar·y adj. 1. Acting or done without or against one's will: an involuntary participant in what turned out to be an argument. 2. naive, faulty physical knowledge. Does prior knowledge turn out to be obstructive obstructive having the characteristic of obstruction. obstructive colic see equine colic. obstructive constipation constipation of sufficient severity as to obstruct the rectum. or conducive con·du·cive adj. Tending to cause or bring about; contributive: working conditions not conducive to productivity. See Synonyms at favorable. in these cases? In cases where prior knowledge acts obstructively ob·struct tr.v. ob·struct·ed, ob·struct·ing, ob·structs 1. To block or fill (a passage) with obstacles or an obstacle. See Synonyms at block. 2. , can these students compensate for it with their talents? Simultaneously, the purpose of the work is to provide a contribution to the ongoing discussion of didactic di·dac·tic adj. Of or relating to medical teaching by lectures or textbooks as distinguished from clinical demonstration with patients. in physics (e.g., Greeno, 1997; Wiesner, 1995) as to whether one can, by compensating for prior knowledge differences, expect to see a reasonable improvement in the present situation of girls with respect to physics. Prior knowledge in physics It is certainly true that boys have a larger amount of previous experience with physics, as well as a naive understanding of more physical concepts than girls. This is not necessarily an advantage as proven by research findings into naive physical concepts (Carey, 1985a, 1985b; DiSessa, 1983; Gentner & Gentner, 1983; Larkin, 1983; McCloskey, 1983; Vasniadou & Brewer, 1987; West & Pines, 1985; Ziegler & Ziegler, 1991). Although these intuitive representations contain information on how the entities of a specific area of physics interact with one another as well as on how these interactions can be explained, they are frequently incomplete and false. Completely different and, to an extent, contradictory naive models of the same phenomenon which are activated activated a state of being more than usually active. In biological systems this is usually brought about by chemical or electrical means. Commonly said of pharmaceutical and chemical products. in different contexts can coexist co·ex·ist intr.v. co·ex·ist·ed, co·ex·ist·ing, co·ex·ists 1. To exist together, at the same time, or in the same place. 2. (Williams, Hollan, & Stevens, 1983). It has been shown that naive physical models are difficult to displace dis·place tr.v. dis·placed, dis·plac·ing, dis·plac·es 1. To move or shift from the usual place or position, especially to force to leave a homeland: , even through structured learning (Alvermann & Hague, 1989; Clement Clement, in the Bible Clement, in Philippians, one of Paul's coworkers. He is traditionally identified with St. Clement of Rome, the likely author of a letter written from there to the Corinthian church in c.A.D. 96. , 1983; DiSessa, 1983). In some studies one sees decisive evidence that the error rate decreases as a result of physics instruction (McCloskey, 1983; Ziegler & Ziegler, 1991) although the types of errors made remain unaffected. In other studies the physics instruction had absolutely no bearing on the desired performance (Kister Kaiser, Proffitt & Anderson, 1985). Set against the background of these findings, the theory that the advantages demonstrated by boys with respect to physics are due to their larger wealth of experience must be viewed skeptically since prior knowledge can also act as an impediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a contract. Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid. . A data-collection in the naturalistic nat·u·ral·is·tic adj. 1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature. 2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism. field of physics education at the 8th grade level of German Gymnasiums was chosen to explore the following research questions: Does the amount of prior knowledge in physics, present before the start of the initial physics instruction, differ between boys and girls and does it reveal a gender-related differing impact on future achievement? Method Measures Diagnosis of giftedness in physics. To establish the level of cognitive talent, the intellectual abilities of the subjects were assessed with a German version of the quantitative sub-scales of the cognitive abilities test (CAT) for 4th to 13th graders (Kognitiver Fahigkeitstest fur 4. bis Second version. It means twice in Old Latin, or encore in French. Ter means three. For example, V.27bis and V.27ter are the second and third versions of the V.27 standard. 13. Klassen, Berufsschuler und Studenten, KFT KFT Korlátolt Felelõsségû Társaság (Hungarian: limited liability corporation) KFT Kraft Foods International (stock symbol) KFT Kilo-Feet KFT Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius) 4-13+) developed by Heller, Gaedike and Weinlader (1985(2)). We selected the CAT because it is characterized char·ac·ter·ize tr.v. character·ized, character·iz·ing, character·iz·es 1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless. 2. by excellent psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties and the quantitative abilities which can be measure with the CAT are nearest to those abilities required in (German) physics courses. Achievement. To determine the influence of prior knowledge on actual scholastic achievement, we considered the marks the students received in physics for the grading period encompassing the first half of the 8th grade. In addition, the marks the students received for participation in physics class were also at our disposal. Test of prior knowledge in physics. For assessing the prior knowledge in physics we translated parts of the TIMSS TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study TIMSS Third International Math and Science Study (Third International Mathematics and Science Study). The questions of the TIMSS - Natural Science tests determine, even though they are very simple, the ability to understand physical phenomena. Neither the application of formulas nor mathematical computation Computation is a general term for any type of information processing that can be represented mathematically. This includes phenomena ranging from simple calculations to human thinking. is required. The questions (see Table 1) include exercises which: * concern everyday experiences that relate to physics, knowledge from areas familiar to the students (Questions 1 - 5). * measure the ability to be able to understand physical circumstances CIRCUMSTANCES, evidence. The particulars which accompany a fact. 2. The facts proved are either possible or impossible, ordinary and probable, or extraordinary and improbable, recent or ancient; they may have happened near us, or afar off; they are public or with the assistance of diagrams and illustration (Questions 6 - 7). * represent specific subdivisions of physics requiring a conceptual understanding. These were taken from the area of mechanics, particularly concerning how mechanics relates to the concept of mass (Questions 8 - 11).
Table 1: Contents of the test of prior knowledge in physics
Contents of the test of prior knowledge in physic
Item Question
Direct everyday experience
(1) Four illustrations depict two children of different weights
sitting in different spatial intervals with respect to the
fulcrum of a crossarm. One is to decide which of the
illustrations represents a condition of equilibrium.
(2) The illustration depicts two pots of boiling water. One of
he pots receives additional heat energy. One is to
determine if this additional heat energy shortens the
cooking time of the contents of the pot.
(3) Four water filled containers with variously sized water
surface are depicted. One is to indicate the container
which allows for the quickest rate of evaporation.
(4) Three possible ways to position two batteries in a
flashlight are presented. One is to indicate which ordering
forms a closed circuit and results in the successful
illumination of the flashlight.
(5) The purpose of the second hole in a can of condensed milk is
to be explained.
Comprehension of a physical phenomenon with the aid of a diagram or
illustration
(6) Five thermometers with different temperature scales are
represented. One has to decide which thermometer can best
indicate the exact measurement of body temperature.
(7) The displacement-time-diagram of an ant moving with constant
velocity is represented. The ant moves forward until time
passed is t -- 20 s., the distance covered when t = 30 s.,
is to read off.
Concept of the Mass/Mechanics
(8) The direction of movement followed by a stone released from
a specified height on the moon is to be indicated.
(9) One kg of sugar is dissolved in 10 kg of lemonade. One is to
determine the weight of this solution.
(10) A sphere is shown rolling out of a spiral formed channel.
One is to determine the direction of the sphere after it
leaves the channel.
(11) One is to determine the weight of a glass of water after
ice-cubes which have been floating in the water have
melted.
Item Specific field of physical knowledge
(Theme)
Direct everyday experience
(1) lever principle
(2) Constancy of the boiling temperature
(3) Dependence of quiescent evaporation quantity
on surface area
(4) Polarity of batteries: Positive and negative
poles of a battery as properties of an electrical
circuit.
(5) Concept of Pressure
Comprehension of a physical phenomenon with the aid of a diagram
or illustration.
(6) Body temperature, exactness of measurements;
Comprehension of a physical phenomenon with
the aid of an illustration
(7) Movement with constant velocity; displacement-time-diagram
Concept of the Mass/Mechanics
(8) Gravitation on the moon
(9) Independence of mass from solution state.
(10) Mass moment of inertia
(11) Independence of mass from the state of
aggregation
Subjects The results stem from an investigation conducted with 547 female and 641 male students in Bavarian high schools (Gymnasium) at the end of the 7th grade, i.e., shortly before physics instruction begins. All the testing was conducted in paper and pencil test Pencil test has multiple meanings.
Results The results presented in Figure 1 show that both male and female students have considerably less prior knowledge regarding exercises which deal with mechanics and the concept of mass (on the average 49% correct solutions) than for exercises which relate to phenomena involving areas of direct experience (78% correct solutions). Exercises which demand the comprehension comprehension Act of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. of physical phenomena represented by diagrams and illustrations (72% correct solutions) also indicate a large degree of available prior knowledge. The differences between prior knowledge regarding mechanics and the concept of mass and prior knowledge regarding direct experience are more prominent among the girls than among the boys. [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Gender differences with respect to knowledge of physics before the start of the first physics course Furthermore, Table 2 indicates that the girls in general had a considerably smaller amount of physics related prior knowledge at their disposal than the boys. With the exception of questions 1 (lever lever, simple machine consisting of a bar supported at some stationary point along its length and used to overcome resistance at a second point by application of force at a third point. The stationary point of a lever is known as its fulcrum. principle), 2 (constancy con·stan·cy n. 1. Steadfastness, as in purpose or affection; faithfulness. 2. The condition or quality of being constant; changelessness. Noun 1. of boiling temperature) and 3 (evaporation evaporation, change of a liquid into vapor at any temperature below its boiling point. For example, water, when placed in a shallow open container exposed to air, gradually disappears, evaporating at a rate that depends on the amount of surface exposed, the humidity ), significant statistical differences (p [is less than] 0.01, exception: Independence of mass from the state of aggregation was significant only on a 5%-level), could be proven to support gender differences. While 60% of the boys solved at least 8 of the 11 exercises correctly, the corresponding solution rate for the girls was only 34%. The most pronounced gender differences appeared in exercises dealing with mechanics and the concept of mass. These concepts were covered by questions 8 (gravitation on the moon), 9 (independence of mass from solution state) and 10 (mass moment of inertia inertia (ĭnûr`shə), in physics, the resistance of a body to any alteration in its state of motion, i.e., the resistance of a body at rest to being set in motion or of a body in motion to any change of speed or change in direction of ) where differences of up to 23 percentage points were recorded. Large differences in solution rates were also uncovered by questions 5 (concept of pressure) and 6 (body temperature).
Table 2: Results of the test of prior knowledge in physics
Percentage of subjects solving a question for
group I (Boys) and Group II (Girls)
Item Theme Group
Boys Girls
Direct everyday experience
(1) lever principle 84 85
(2) Constancy of the boiling temperature 46 45
(3) Evaporation 94 93
(4) Electrical circuit in a flashlight. 96 89
(5) Concept of Pressure 81 63
Comprehension of a physical phenomenon with
the aid of a diagram or illustration
(6) Body temperature 69 53
(7) Movement with a constant velocity 86 78
Concept of the Mass/Mechanics
(8) Gravitation on the moon 42 19
(9) Independence of mass from solution
state. 51 34
(10) Mass moment of inertia 64 46
(11) Independence of mass from the state
of aggregation 71 63
Item Theme [chi square] p
df = 1
Direct everyday experience
(1) lever principle 0.1 .80
(2) Constancy of the boiling temper 0.1 .82
(3) Evaporation 0.8 .37
(4) Electrical circuit in a flashlight. 15.5 .00(**)
(5) Concept of Pressure 40.4 .00(**)
Comprehension of a physical phenomenon
the aid of a diagram or illustration
(6) Body temperature 28.5 .00(**)
(7) Movement with a constant velocity 12.1 .00(**)
Concept of the Mass/Mechanics
(8) Gravitation on the moon 58.6 .00(**)
(9) Independence of mass from solution
state 26.8 .00(**)
(10) Mass moment of inertia 33.5 .00(**)
(11) Independence of mass from the state
of aggregation 5.9 .02(*)
Note. (*) p<.05. (**) p<.001. N=1188 (641 boys, 547 girls) On the other hand, exercises which touched on phenomena dealing with areas of direct everyday experience did not, with the one exception of question 5 (concept of pressure), allow for the establishment of gender differences. No statistically significant differences between boys and girls could be made for questions 1 (lever principle), 2 (constancy of boiling temperature) or 3 (evaporation). A slight discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. of 7 percentage points was recorded for question 4 (electrical circuit of a flashlight). Exercises which demanded the comprehension of physical phenomena represented through diagrams and illustrations revealed statistically significant gender differences. These differences were not as distinct as the differences recorded for exercises involving mechanics and the concept of mass. Question 7 (movement with a constant velocity), which deals with a typical physical illustration (the displacement-time-diagram), resulted in a rather small gender difference of 8 percentage points. In contrast, the difference in solutions for question 6 (body temperature), which demanded understanding the concept of exact representation, reached a full 16 percentage points. Gender differences in scholastic performance Mid-year grading reports in the subject of physics do confirm the expected gender differences. As shown in Figure 2, the boys received average grades of 2.7 while the girls received an average score of 3.0 (based on a scale of 1.0 - 6.0 with 1.0 being the highest grade possible). The difference could be statistically proven to the 1% level. On the other hand, participation rates in physics courses demonstrated a negligible  This article or section is written like a personal reflection or and may require .Please [ improve this article] by rewriting this article or section in an . (not statistically significant) lead for the boys. Both genders could reach a mark here of about 2.5 (see Table 3). [Figure 2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Table 3: Mid-year course grades and participation grades for 8th
grade physics
Grades for group I (Boys) and Group II (Girls)
Grade Group t(df) p
Boys Girls
Mid-year course grade 2.7 3.0 -3.6 (df=813) .00(**)
Participation Grade 2.5 2.6 -1.5 (df=817) .18
Note. (**) p<.001. The Grades are based on a scale of 1.0 - 6.0 with 1.0 being the highest grade possible. In the next phase of the analysis, the quality of prior knowledge in physics and talent level in predicting marks in physics was examined with the help of a regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. . The percentage of correctly answered exercises on the test of prior knowledge in physics did not turn out to be a suitable predictor for either the boys or the girls. Therefore the average values for each of the three exercise groups in the test of prior knowledge in physics was determined for each participant and entered into the regression equation Regression equation An equation that describes the average relationship between a dependent variable and a set of explanatory variables. to test their capacity for predicting mid-year grades. Although these three averages did not improve the predictive power The predictive power of a scientific theory refers to its ability to generate testable predictions. Theories with strong predictive power are highly valued, because the predictions can often encourage the falsification of the theory. of the test of prior knowledge in physics for the grades achieved by the boys, the performance on exercises dealing with "Physical phenomena in diagrams/illustrations" was confirmed as being suitable to predict the physics grades of girls (R=.29, beta=-.27, p [is less than] .05). On the other hand, the other two exercise areas did not reveal the predictive quality for the girls (see Table 4).
Table 4: Results of the regression analysis omitting cognitive
ability predictors
Results of the regression analysis
omitting cognitive ability predictors
Mid-year grades in physics
Total Boys
Multiple R .27 .25
Predictors r beta r beta
Experience-based knowledge n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Concept of the mass/Mechanics n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Diagrams/Illustrations -.25 -.23 n.s. n.s.
Mid-year grades in physics
Girls
Multiple R .29
Predictors r beta
Experience-based knowledge n.s. n.s.
Concept of the mass/Mechanics n.s. n.s.
Diagrams/Illustrations -.28 -.27
Note. n.s. not significant; p<.05 After the inclusion of individual cognitive abilities (which should actually be good predictors of scholastic achievement) in the regression analysis, it was unexpectedly shown that these had no significant predictive influence for the physics grades among the boys. Cognitive abilities, when considered in conjunction with the exercise areas of the test of prior knowledge in physics obtained for the girls, could explain 25% of the variance for the physics grades achieved by the girls (see Table 5).
Table 5: Results of the regression analysis including cognitive
ability predictors
Results of the regression analysis
including cognitive ability predictors
Mid-year grades in physics
Total Boys
Multiple R .35 .27
Predictors r beta r beta
Experience-based knowledge n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Concept of the mass/Mechanics n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Diagrams/Illustrations -.25 -.18 n.s. n.s.
Cognitive abilities -.28 -.25 n.s. n.s.
Girls
Multiple R .50
Predictors r beta
Experience-based knowledge n.s. n.s.
Concept of the mass/Mechanics n.s. n.s.
Diagrams/Illustrations -.28 -.23
Cognitive abilities -.44 -.42
Note. n.s. not significant; p<.05 Discussion and didactic implications The results of our study prove that many students, both boys and girls, have a certain amount of prior knowledge at their disposal before their initial exposure to physics courses. As expected, significantly less previous knowledge can be confirmed for areas of physics which draw on direct experiences as well as those which require conceptual comprehension for both genders. Two aspects of our resulting data sets seem to be especially significant. Therefore, the following discussion concentrates on gender differences and the ambivalent am·biv·a·lent adj. Exhibiting or feeling ambivalence. am·biv  a·lent·ly adv.Adj. 1. nature of prior knowledge. A familiar image of gender differences in the area of physics is reconstructed re·con·struct tr.v. re·con·struct·ed, re·con·struct·ing, re·con·structs 1. To construct again; rebuild. 2. with the results of our study. This is especially evident in areas where experience plays a lesser role. Mainly in conjunction with themes which are more complex and touch on subjects which are further removed from everyday occurrences, the employment of instructional forms which depend on previously obtained scholastic knowledge poses the distinct danger of discriminating dis·crim·i·nat·ing adj. 1. a. Able to recognize or draw fine distinctions; perceptive. b. Showing careful judgment or fine taste: against girls. A form of instruction which focuses on prior knowledge seems to be preferred for subjects which encompass phenomena which can be experienced in one's environment since gender differences are weakest here. Such thematic the·mat·ic adj. 1. Of, relating to, or being a theme: a scene of thematic importance. 2. areas offer the opportunity to avoid putting the girls at a disadvantage (Ziegler, Broome, Dresel & Heller, 1996). The duplicitous nature of the importance of prior knowledge in physics for later achievement in physics courses is confirmed by the regression analysis. In the introductory section it was mentioned that most naive concepts concerning physics are faulty and can only with difficulty be corrected through physics instruction. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Baumert, Lehman et al. (1997) not every competence which is central to the understanding of the basic principles of modern mathematics and natural sciences can be casually acquired in the normal daily activities of adolescents. Their acquisition require guided long-term, systematic learning processes. Therefore, it is not striking to see that prior knowledge in physics has only a limited capacity to predict physics course grades. Since it is presumed that students gifted in the subject have occupied themselves more intensely with questions of a physical nature before they have been introduced to formal physics instruction, they possibly have more naive physical concepts at their disposal than average students. Despite (or perhaps better: due to) their greater talent they are more intensely confronted with the problem of replacing naive knowledge with adequate physics concepts. It is obvious that with the inclusion of predictors of giftedness into the regression equation, no better predictor qualities could be obtained among the boys. The assessment of the double-edged role of prior knowledge is supported by the finding that the smallest gender differences appeared on exercises which were drawn from the areas of direct experience. This possibly unexpected finding, however, confirms that a larger - more mistake prone - wealth of experience (Ziegler et al., 1996) does not necessarily lead to adequate physics-based knowledge. In summation summation n. the final argument of an attorney at the close of a trial in which he/she attempts to convince the judge and/or jury of the virtues of the client's case. (See: closing argument) , it is obvious that boys have more prior knowledge in physics at their disposal than girls, but this does not explain the better grades they receive in physics courses. On the contrary, our data indicates that this prior knowledge, due to its incomplete and faulty nature, acts to impede im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped the acquisition of adequate physical concepts for students already rich in experience, which is especially true for gifted students. The didactic answer for the dismantling dis·man·tle tr.v. dis·man·tled, dis·man·tling, dis·man·tles 1. a. To take apart; disassemble; tear down. b. of gender differences in physics can, therefore, not be found in the unreflected taking up of physical experiences and particularly not those experiences in areas which appeal particularly to females. There is also a great danger here of initiating learning processes on the basis of the students prior knowledge, which is potentially based on deficient de·fi·cient adj. 1. Lacking an essential quality or element. 2. Inadequate in amount or degree; insufficient. deficient a state of being in deficit. naive concepts. In order, however, to prevent misunderstandings, we do not want to advocate the exclusive discussion of topics in physics which are remote from common experience. The anchoring of subject matter in the common knowledge of the students is a didactic goal which we find to be very meaningful, and for which the effectiveness in arousing and maintaining students interest in physics is indisputable. Baumert (1996) claims that the best predictor for technical problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. has proven to be scholastic knowledge dealing with natural phenomena. Schools and teachers are challenged to intensify their educational activities to open the imaginations of growing children to questions based in the natural sciences. One should, however, always insure Insure can mean:
The results of our study also show that one can come close to shutting the gender gap in physics by compensating for the deficits in prior knowledge among the girls, seems to be illusionary. As depicted de·pict tr.v. de·pict·ed, de·pict·ing, de·picts 1. To represent in a picture or sculpture. 2. To represent in words; describe. See Synonyms at represent. in the regression analysis, neither prior knowledge nor talent level can explain the gender differences evident in physics course grades. These findings strongly support the thesis, that gender differences in physics achievement are more influenced by the second component of physics-related socialization experience: self related cognitions, such as domain specific self-concept or attribution style connected with achievement results in physics. Based on this conclusion, we think that intervention treatments which bring about a change in the self-related cognitions of the girls offer more promise. Particularly, an improvement of dysfunctional dys·func·tion also dis·func·tion n. Abnormal or impaired functioning, especially of a bodily system or social group. dys·func attribution styles in physics (attribution retraining re·train tr. & intr.v. re·trained, re·train·ing, re·trains To train or undergo training again. re·train ; for overviews see Forsterling, 1985; Ziegler & Schober, 1997) seems to offer numerous promising and appropriate possibilities (Craven CRAVEN. A word of obloquy, which in trials by battle, was pronounced by the vanquished; upon which judgment was rendered against him. , Marsh & Debus, 1991; Heller & Ziegler, 1996). (1) Source: Information related per telephone by the Bavarian Bureau for Statistics and Data Processing data processing or information processing, operations (e.g., handling, merging, sorting, and computing) performed upon data in accordance with strictly defined procedures, such as recording and summarizing the financial transactions of a . 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Talent and gender in mathematics, natural sciences and technology]. Bern:Huber. Benbow, C.P. & Lubinski, D. (Eds.) (1995). From psychometrics psychometrics Science of psychological measurement. Psychometricians design and administer psychological tests (see psychological testing), both to generate empirical data on mental processes and to refine their understanding of measurement techniques and the to giftedness. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. Callahan, C. M. (1991). An update on gifted females. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 14, 284-311. Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood. Cambridge, MA: MIT MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Clement, J. (1983). A conceptual model discussed by Galileo and used intuitively by physics students. In D. Gentner & A. L. Stevens. (Eds.), Mental Models (pp. 325-340). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Craven, R.G., Marsh, H.W. & Debus, R.L. (1991). Effects of internally focused feedback on enhancement of academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 17-27. DiSessa, A. (1983). Phenomenology phenomenology, modern school of philosophy founded by Edmund Husserl. Its influence extended throughout Europe and was particularly important to the early development of existentialism. and the evolution of intuition intuition, in philosophy, way of knowing directly; immediate apprehension. The Greeks understood intuition to be the grasp of universal principles by the intelligence (nous), as distinguished from the fleeting impressions of the senses. . In D. Gentner & A. Stevens (Eds.), Mental Models (pp. 15-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., Harold, R. D., & Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children's self- and task perceptions during elementary school elementary school: see school. . Child Development, 64, 830-847. Forsterling, F. (1985). Attributional Retraining: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 495-512. Gentner, D., & Gentner, D. (1983). Flowing waters or teeming teem 1 v. teemed, teem·ing, teems v.intr. 1. To be full of things; abound or swarm: A drop of water teems with microorganisms. 2. crowds: Mental models of electricity. In D. Gentner & A. Stevens (Eds.), Mentals Models (pp. 101-129). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Greeno, J.G. (1997). Response: On claims that answer the wrong questions. Educational Researcher, 26, 5-17. Heller, K. A. & Ziegler, A. (1996). Gender Differences in Mathematics and the Sciences: Can Attributional Retraining Improve the Performance of Gifted Females? Gifted Child gifted child Child naturally endowed with a high degree of general mental ability or extraordinary ability in a specific domain. Although the designation of giftedness is largely a matter of administrative convenience, the best indications of giftedness are often those Quarterly, 40, 200-210. Heller, K. A., Gaedike, A.-K. & Weinlader, H. (1985(2)). Kognitiver Fahigkeits-Test 4-13+ [Cognitive ability test 4-13+]. Weinheim: Beltz. Kister Kaiser, M., Proffitt, D. R. & Anderson, K. (1985). Judgements of natural and anomalous a·nom·a·lous adj. 1. Deviating from the normal or common order, form, or rule. 2. Equivocal, as in classification or nature. trajectories in the presence and absence of motion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition cognition Act or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. , 11, 795-803. Larkin, J. (1983). The role of problem representation in physics. In D. Gentner & A. Stevens (Eds.), Mental Models (pp. 53-73). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. McCloskey, M. (1983). Naive theories of motion. In D. Gentner & A. Stevens (Eds.), Mental Models (pp. 299-324). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Srocke, B. (1989). Madchen und Mathematik: historisch-systematische Untersuchung der unterschiedlichen Bedingungen des Mathematiklernens yon Madchen und Jungen [Girls and mathematics: A historical and systematic examination of the various conditions in learning mathematics for boys and girls]. Leverkusen: Deutscher Universitatsverlag. Vasniadou, S., & Brewer, W. (1987). Theories of knowledge restructuring restructuring - The transformation from one representation form to another at the same relative abstraction level, while preserving the subject system's external behaviour (functionality and semantics). in development. Review of Educational Research, 57, 51-67. West, L. & Pines, A. (Eds.) (1985). Cognitive structure and conceptual change. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Wiesner, H. (1995). Physikunterricht - an den Interessen von Madchen und Jungen orientiert [Physics instruction - oriented towards the interests of girls and boys]. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 23, 126-145. Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. S. (1994). Children's competence beliefs, achievement values, and general self-esteem: Change across elementary and middle school. Journal of Early Adolescence adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood. The exact period of adolescence, which varies from person to person, falls approximately between the ages 12 and 20 and encompasses both physiological and psychological changes. , 14, 107-138. Williams, M., Hollan, J., & Stevens, A. (1983). Human reasoning about a simple physical system. In D. Gentner & A. Stevens (Eds.), Mental Models (pp. 131-154). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ziegler, A., Broome, P., Dresel, M. & Heller, K. A. (1996). Physikalisch-technische Vorerfahrungen von Madchen [Previous experience in physics and technology among girls]. Physik in der Schule, 34, 163-164. Ziegler, A. & Heller, K. (1997). Gifted females: A cross-cultural study. In J. Chan, R. Li & J. Spinks (Eds.), Maximizing potential: Lengthening lengthening (lengkˑ·the·ning), n the use of various massage or muscle energy techniques to relax and stretch muscle and connective tissue. and strengthening stride (pp. 242-247). Hong Kong Hong Kong (hŏng kŏng), Mandarin Xianggang, special administrative region of China, formerly a British crown colony (2005 est. pop. 6,899,000), land area 422 sq mi (1,092 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong prov. : WCGT WCGT Weekly Challenge Golf Tour (Chicago, IL) . Ziegler, A., Heller, K. A. & Broome, P. (1996). Motivational preconditions of gifted and highly gifted girls in physics. High Ability Studies, 7, 129-143. Ziegler, A. & Schober, B. (1997). Reattributionstrainings [Attributional retraining]. Regensburg: Roderer. Ziegler, A. & Ziegler, C. (1991). Die Bedeutung der Lernerfahrung und des Expertisegrades beim Erwerb des Konzeptes der physikalischen Beschleunigung [The significance of learning experiences and expertise level in the acquisition of the concept of physical acceleration]. Empirische Padagogik, 5, 267-283. Markus Dresel, Albert Ziegler, Patrick Broome and Kurt A. Heller are at the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Munich, Germany. Markus Dresel is a certified See certification. physics teacher and Patrick Broome is a staff member of the German National Research Council study "Attributional Retraining". Albert Ziegler is Assistant Professor and co-leading the research program. Kurt A. Heller is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Department of Psychological Diagnostics and Evaluation at the University of Munich. He is member of many learned societies and has published approx. 300 books, psychological tests Psychological Tests Definition Psychological tests are written, visual, or verbal evaluations administered to assess the cognitive and emotional functioning of children and adults. , chapters and articles in field of psychology and (special) education. Manuscript submitted December, 1997. Revision accepted July, 1998. |
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