GIS: a tool to locate new park and recreation services: new technology can help park and recreation managers learn more about their park users.

Where is the best location to set up a new recreation facility such as a waterpark for a city? Who are the people living nearby and who may come out to use it? Is it maximally accessible to all residents? How many minutes, on average, does it take residents living within a mile radius to walk to the facility? How long do residents living five miles away need to drive there? What volume of transportation will be added to the area? In what zoning district will it be situated, and so on? Recreation and park administrators have so many questions and uncertainties to be answered in the process of making such a decision.

Over the years, recreation and park administrators and managers have come a long way in searching for effective tools for planning and managing park and recreation facilities and resources. Geographic information systems (GIS) have recently emerged as a helpful and accountable vehicle to fulfill the mission of providing sufficient and equitable park and recreation services (Tarrant & Cordell, 1999; Nedovic-Budic, et al 1999). GIS can be used to measure geographic, environmental and socioeconomic attributes in relation to an existing or planned park or recreational facility, to describe the spatial distribution of socio-demographic attributes in a given residential area, to discover potential market segments, to examine spatial relationships between existing recreational or natural resources and distances traveled from origins of potential visitors, to use network analysis to minimize traveling time and find an optimal route, to derive new variables (e.g., population density) from existing datasets, or to track concealed damage of a forest fire in a national park.

GIS, as defined by Burrough (1986), is an information system used to capture, store, manipulate, integrate and display geographic information. More specifically, GIS is a computer-supported information system that enables storage, transmission, retrieval, processing and description of geographical-referenced information. For instance, a creek can be described as a line, a fishing pier as a point, and a park as an area. All of those can be represented either in the form of the "raster" data structure that describes space in small units (a series of geometric shapes, often called "grid cells"), or the "vector" data structure that treats space as a continuous surface. GIS is technically both a database system and a set of operations for describing geographical properties. GIS has two major operational capacities: spatial information, stressing a large database inventory; and spatial analysis, stressing functionality and a wide range of data modeling (Goodchild, 1992).

Historically, GIS originated from cartographic techniques of drawing maps with a pencil and board. Limited by the capabilities of manual activities, cartography mainly focused on map-producing techniques rather than analyzing and integrating technologies (Foote & Lynch, 1995). It was the adoption of computer technology that allowed GIS to evolve as a geo-referenced dynamic information system. Today, GIS has emerged as a multidisciplinary instrument that links such disciplines as geography, computer science, remote sensing, civil engineering, statistics, marketing, and other social and behavioral sciences including park and recreation management.

The Early Use of GIS

Literature on the applications of GIS first appeared in the journals of park, recreation and leisure research back in the late 1960s. Lentnek, Van Doren and Trail (1969) conducted a survey of recreational boaters' spatial behaviors on inland lakes in the state of Ohio. GIS was used to display and analyze how those water resources were spatially distributed, and how far the visitors traveled to access them, in order to test the "distance decay function." Namely, as distance increased, the cost of traveling to the place increased and the rate of recreation participation by people traveling from the distance origin will decrease. GIS helped the researchers to learn that travel distance was related to trip purpose in recreational boating. For instance, sailors and water skiers traveled short distances, while non-specialized boaters traveled longer distances.

Hodges and Van Doren (1972) evaluated disparities in urban recreational opportunities with an early version of a GIS tool (SYMAP). The study tried to demonstrate how to use the mapping technique to assist in planning new recreational centers in the Dallas, Texas, metropolitan area. A set of maps displayed population density, service radii of selected recreation centers, and a potential mobility index based on ownership of automobiles in each census tract. Maps helped to establish specific criteria for planning a new recreational facility. Accordingly, two new sites were identified as high priority locations based on the criteria:

(1) large populations living about three miles away from an existing center,

(2) a relatively mobile population, and

(3) a trend of population expansion and movement.

In the following 30 years, adoption of GIS technologies in park and recreation services slowly emerged into two channels: outdoor recreation management and urban park and recreation administration. Applications of GIS in outdoor recreation have focused on resource location, spatial patterns of distribution, distance measurement and other statistical analyses. The use of GIS in urban park and recreation administration focuses on facility allocation, service planning and issues of accessibility and disparity.

GIS and Outdoor Recreation

GIS was frequently used to describe the characteristics of recreational sites aimed at satisfying certain needs of visitors (Confer & Graefe, 1994; Hecock, 1970; Kim, Mutter, & Westphal, 1997; Lee, 2004). Hecock (1970) created GIS maps to describe the spatial correlation between recreational sites and visitors' occupations, which revealed that site preferences of visitors in different occupations were associated with the character of the nearby lodge facilities. People with high socio-economic status characteristics appeared to be drawn to the sites with lodge facilities having above average aesthetic qualities. GIS was also used to depict the proportion of visitors hosted by each site at a given time. Confer and Graefe (1994) studied boaters' attitudes and activity patterns regarding recreation sites. GIS technology was used to display sites that were "most enjoyed" and "least enjoyed" by visitors. In this study, GIS helped the management team improve services by locating clusters of problematic areas. Lee and Graefe (2004) incorporated GIS to identity sites preferred by different age groups of visitors. Through a terrain analysis, it was found that younger visitors preferred sites with higher elevation and steeper slopes.

Integrating GIS with statistics enables users to quantify the quality of surfaces (McCoy & Johnston, 2001). For instance, in spatial statistics, the "kriging" method is often used to perform surface analyses. Kriging is an interpolation method dealing with continuous data. Explicitly, through the kriging method, users can collect data from sampled points and assign values to the area between the points. For example, if a park ranger wants to determine annual precipitation in a forest, with a series of sample points, kriging will enable him/her to measure precipitation in inches.

Another form of spatial analysis is a spatial regression model, which rests the correlation of measured variables (e.g. household income or residents' ethnicity background) and locations of visiting sites. In practice, Tarrant and Cordell (1999) and Porter and Tarrant 2001) incorporated census block group data within a GIS database to determine the relationship between outdoor recreational sites and social economic status of local residents. GIS has also helped to identify disparity issues of environmental justice. Lee, Graefe and Burns (2003) integrated county level census data with GIS to analyze demographic segments of local residents along the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area in Oregon. They found a relationship between the fees paid and the level of education and family composition. Persons with a higher educational background, with children aged 16 and younger spent more. They also found that age differences and marital stares may determine which particular sites residents may visit.

Measuring distance with GIS is pervasive in leisure research. Distance is an important factor influencing visitors' recreational behaviors. Gitelson and Crompton (1984) found that repeat visitors are usually those living closer to the facility. Debbage (1991) used distance to predict visitors' participation behaviors: the farther they traveled, the longer they intend to stay, and the more they wanted to see and do. Fesenmaier, Goodchild and Lieber (1980) tested the distance decay model with GIS. A series of 3-D maps described outdoor recreation participants' travel distance, both visually and spatially in miles and in travel time. Zawachi and Marsinko (1999) used GIS to calculate the travel cost of trips to South Carolina recreation areas. The authors used GIS to measure costs along routes and eliminated the need to rely oil respondent memory to get an estimated mileage, minimizing the possibility of human error,

GIS in Urban Paths and Recreation

Applications of GIS in urban parks and recreation are still in their infancy, Devine and Kuo (1991) noted that "extremely little has been done in urban recreation analysis in applications of GIS except straightforward applications for displaying location of facilities and plotting general respondents to a survey" (p.83). GIS technology adoption has remained relatively low (Nicholls & Shafer, 2001). However, previous studies have laid groundwork for exploration of GIS for urban park and recreation services.

Wicks, Backman, Allen and Blaricom (1993) were the first to thoroughly discuss trends of GIS applications in the field of park and recreation management. They summarized prevalent uses of GIS as follows:

Recreation facilities

* Area mapping and reporting about park and recreation sites

* Tracking and analyzing facility development trends

* Managing maintenance at recreation facilities such as fields, courts and pools

* Selecting a location for new facilities

* Land development, updating lot boundaries and displaying land record data

* Land use, displaying and analyzing land use data

Users

* Documenting demographic patterns and trends

* Population segmentation analyses, market area identification

* Tracking attitudes and interest survey data and displaying it spatially

The authors also illustrated how to assess planning and policy issues in urban settings with a GIS tool. A series of maps were produced showing the needs for recreation development from the perspective of physical size and the distribution of existing parks versus other social economic factors. GIS showed that areas with high levels of poverty had the most need for leisure services.

Nicholls and Shafer (2001) adopted GIS technology in urban park and recreation services to assess accessibility and equity in a local park system. The authors used radii buffer techniques, which involve drawing a line around a feature at a given distance, to find out the number of facilities and proportion of population in the selected area. The authors also performed a network analysis to calculate actual travel distance along streets to a local park. Network analysis is one of the cornerstones of GIS functionality (Worboys, 1995) and is a necessary technique in measuring travel distance. The technique takes geographical constraints into account, and instead of measuring straight-line distance, it bases its data on geographic factors and gives the actual route distances. Network analysis allows seeking an optimal route and minimizing travel time between two locations (Bailey & Gatrell, 1995).

GIS application in parks and recreation is not a new phenomenon, but, coupled with the powers of advanced computer technologies, the use of GIS is stepping into a new era. GIS has great potential to play an important role in managing, planning, marketing and evaluating park and recreation services. However, "useful" technology does not necessarily mean "useable" technology. The improvement of end-user-friendly interface platform designs and the perception and willfulness of park and recreation administrative agencies in adopting GIS are crucial for the extensive use of GIS. Regardless, Goodchild (1992) predicted, eventually, GIS would change in the meaning of the "S" word, from "system" evolving into "science." Namely, a geographic information science everyone call use.

RESEARCH INTO ACTION: RESOURCE TOOLS FOR GIS

Extending the theme of the current research on GIS application in park and recreation management, several points should be made clearly for taking research into action. First, it is beneficial to use GIS. As indicated from review, GIS will make it efficient, effective, executable and exemplary in designing, decision-making, action-taking and evaluating for park and recreation services.

It also becomes necessary to use GIS. Looking back on the progressions of computer usage 10 years ago, technological trends today have pulled everyone into the world of the Internet. From the view of development, being a GIS illiterate in the next decade, just like someone who doesn't know how to use e-mail today, will have difficulty to maintain the management position.

Finally, it is available for either existing users or beginning learners. Rapid diffusion of GIS has made resources and services available online for all purposeful uses. Government agencies, research institutes, or private companies have aggressively established a variety of services in supplementing GIS data and technical support for users. Here are some resources to try:

www.census.gov/geo/www/index.html

US Census Bureau developed a huge GIS data inventory in the form of TIGER files available at this Web address.

www.fs.fed.us/r6/data-library/gis

The regional station of USDA Forest Services set up a Web site for the public to access GIS data, which is often related to natural resources and recreation opportunities. For instance, USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region made geo-coded natural resource information available at this Web site.

www.nysgis.state.ny.us/index.html

Some local government agencies also created various-sized online GIS resources accessible for general public use. Most of the data is free to download, such as the information here, which hosts a GIS data clearinghouse for the state of New York. Data includes school districts, land uses, road conditions and all other sources of information.

www.isgs.uiuc.edu/nsdihome/webdocs/doqs/county/ peoria.html

Many cities' or counties' planning or zoning offices also support and assist in use GIS data. For example, Peoria County, Ill., made its GIS data available online here.

www.gis.ncsu.edu

www.pop.psu.edu/gia-core

In the academic community, many schools have established research labs to further explore GIS applications. There are a number of them across the nation, but just a few are mentioned here. Some of them focus on GIS in natural resource management (NCSU); others emphasize human centered urban or rural issues (Population Research Institute at Penn State).

www.geog.nau.edu/gis-cert/index.html

A few schools, such as Northern Arizona University's Department of Geography, Planning and Recreation, further developed a systematic educational program for training recreation professionals in using GIS. It offers 7-8 GIS related courses for trainees to earn a GIS certificate.

www.esri.com

www.MapInfo.com

www.geoscape.com

Many private companies not only provide support and consultation for GIS applications, but also offer GIS software and research-based services. Environmental Services Reservation Institute (ESRI) is a GIS giant in developing and assimilating the use of GIS. Other companies like MapInfo and Geoscape International can provide initial support and services to get you started in using GIS.

References

Bailey, T. & Gatrell, A. (1995). Interactive Spatial Data Analysis. England: Longman.

Burrough, P. A. (1986). Principles of Geographic Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Confer, J & Graefe, A. (1992). A geographic information systems approach to analysis of spatial relationships between recreational boating users and perceived impacts Proceedings of the 1992 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium (pp. 103-110), Bolton Landing, NY: USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-232.

Debbage, G. (1991). Spatial behavior in Bahamian resort. Annals of Tourism Research, 18, 256-268.

Devine, H. & Kuo, J. (1991). Geographic information systems Applications to urban recreation research and management. Proceeding of the 1991 Leisure Research Symposium. Baltimore, MD: NRPA.

Fesenmaier, D., Goodchild, M., & Lieber, S. (1980). Correlates of day-hiking travel: The effects of aggregation. Journal of Leisure Research, 12(3), 213-228.

Foote, K. & Lynch, M. (2001). Geographic Information Systems as an Integrating Technology: Context, Concepts, and Definitions. Manuscripts at University of Colorado. Retrieval on June 5, 2004 at http://www. colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/note/intro/intro.html

Gitelson and Crompton (1984). Insight into the repeat vacation phenomenon. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 199-217

Goodchild, M. (1992). Geographical information Science International Journal of Geographical Information Sciences, 6, 31-45.

Goodchild, M. (2000). Communicating Geographic Information in a Digital Age Annals of Association of American Geographers, 90(2), 344-355.

Graefe, A., Lee, B. & Burns, R. (2002). GIS Analysis of Family Leisure Market Segments for the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area. Bolton Landing, NY: The 14th Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium.

Hecock, R. (1970). Recreation behavior patterns as related to site characteristics of beaches. Journal of Leisure Research, 2(2), 237-250.

Hedges, L. and Van Doren, C. (1922). Synagraphic mapping as a tool in locating and evaluating the spatial distribution of municipal recreation facilities. Journal of Leisure Research, 4(3), 341-153.

Kim, S., Mutter, L. & Westphal, J. (1987). Development of a computerized cognitive mapping technique for establishing the service area of neighborhood parks. Journal of Park And Recreation Administration, 5(1), 29-45.

Lee, B. & Graefe, A. (2004). Motives, Behaviors, and Attachment. A study of senior nature-based travelers. Unpublished Manuscript, Pennsylvania State University.

Lee, B. Graefe, A., & Burns, R. (2003) Analysis of demographic segmentation of Local residents in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area: A GIS approach for the potential park visitors. 2003 Annual Conference of Population Association of America, Minneapolis, MN.

Lovingood, P. & Mitchell, L. (1978). The structure of public and Private recreational systems: Columbia, South Carolina. Journal of Leisure Research, (10), 1, 21-36.

Lentnek, B., Van Doren, C., & Trail, J. (1969). Spatial behavior in recreational boating. Journal of Leisure Research, 1(2), 103-124.

McCoy, J. & Johnston, K. (2001). Using ArcGIS: Spatial Analyst. Redland, CA: ESRI.

Mitchell, L. & Lovinggood, P. (1976). Public urban recreations: An Investigation of spatial relationships. Journal of Leisure Research, (8),1, 7-21.

Nedovic-Budic, Z., Knaap, G. & Scheidecker, B. (1999). Advancing the use of geographic information system for park and recreation management. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 17(4), 73-101.

Nicholls, S. & Shafer, C. S. (2001). Measuring Accessibility and equity in a local park system: The Utility of geospatial technologies to park and recreation professionals Journal of Park and recreation Administration, 19(4), 102-124.

Porter, R. & Tarrant M. (2001). A case study of environmental justice and federal tourism sites in southern Appalachia: A GIS application. Journal of Travel Research, 40, 27-40.

Proceedings of the 2000 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium (pp.391-396). Bolton Landing, NY: USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-269.

Tarrant, M. A. & Cordell, H. K. (1999). Environment Justice and the spatial distribution of outdoor recreation sites: An application of geographic information systems. Journal of Leisure Research, 31(1), 18-34.

Wicks, B., Backman, K., Allen, J. & Blaricom, D. V. (1993) Georgraphic information systems (GIS): A tool for marketing, managing, and planning municipal park systems. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 11(1), 9-23.

Worboys, M. (1995). GIS: A Computing Perspective. Bristol, PA: Taylor & Francis.

Zawacki, W. & Marsinko, A. (1999). Using geographic information systems with travel cost models: A case study. Proceedings of the 2000 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium (pp.287-292). Bolton Landing, NY: USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-269.

Bob Lee is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Management at Penn State University, Penn., and is an instructor for the School of Human Movement, Sports and Leisure Studies at Bowling Green State University, Ohio. Alan Graefe is an associate professor in the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Management at Penn State University.