Friendship between adults with and without developmental disabilities.

Friendships between children with and without developmental disabilities provides a link between mere functional participation and full inclusion. Therapeutic recreation specialists have a history of success in promoting friendships between children with and without disabilities (Schleien, Fahnestock, Green, & Rynders, 1990; Rynders, Schleien, Meyer, Vandercook, Mustonen, Colond, & Olson, 1993; Rynders & Schleien, 1991; Heyne, Schleien, & McAvoy, 1993) by blending a carefully prepared strategy of intrinsic--those designed to make an individual more attractive and friend-like (Green & Schleien, 1991)--and extrinsic--those designed to make the environment more conducive to friendship development (Schleien, Fahnestock, Green, & Rynders, 1990)--strategies of friendship development.

The importance of friendship development between adults with and without developmental disabilities is of equal importance. However, as the nature of friendship relationships between adults differs from those of children, so do the obstacles to and strategies for friendship development between adults with and without disabilities. A review of the current research literature has uncovered obstacles to friendship between adults with and without disabilities, as well as suggestions for overcoming the obstacles, yet there seems to be very little substantial empirical evidence that strategies are effective.

Adult Vs. Childhood Friendships

Adult friendships differ from childhood friendships. Parent-child relationships are vertical relationships, and children learn that compliance with powerful others can bring about fulfillment of their social needs (Burhmester & Furman, 1986). As children develop, friendships with same-age peers replace diminishing relationships with parents. Children begin to develop the skills necessary to maintain relationships of equal power status. Children who learn to balance the skills of cooperation, compromise, and competition become socially accepted by peers (Youniss, 1980).

During adolescence, one's need for intimacy and companionship results in relationships with same-sex friends who are similar in age, background, and interests. These relationships are characterized by intense closeness, emotional sharing, and adjustment of one's behavior to meet the mutual needs of the relationship (Sullivan, 1953).

Adult friendship, a complex and seemingly indefinable relationship, appears to be a culmination of all skills and characteristics developed during childhood and adolescence. Additionally, these friendships are characterized by intellectual stimulation and social interconnectedness (Rubin, 1985), the ability to engage in skillful interactions (Howes, 1984), reciprocity in affection (Green & Schleien, 1991), and the ability and desire to share the responsibilities of developing and maintaining friendship relationships (Stainback & Stainback, 1987).

Rubin (1985) added that adult friendships have an enduring quality that is often lacking in children's friendships. Adult friends are expected to accept and grow with the changes that occur in the lives of their intimate friends.

Friendship: Adults with and without Disabilities

Research on friendships between adults with and without developmental disabilities appears to focus more on determining if such friendships can and do exist and identifying the barriers that are preventing these relationships from forming than on developing strategies for facilitating friendship and empirically proving the worth of these strategies. As such, researchers have concluded that friendship relationships between adults with and without disabilities are rare, often superficial replacements for friendship, and that difference in social perceptions and the complexity of the demands of adult friendship serve as major barriers to friendship development between these two groups. However, researchers are confident that such relationships are possible, and strategies have been suggested, yet not necessarily tested and proven, for facilitating friendships between adults with and without disabilities.

Perceptions of Friendship

Lutifaya (1990) suggested that friendships between adults with and without developmental disabilities do exist and that these relationships are built on reciprocated contributions to and expectations from the relationship. The author noted, however, that nondisabled peers had different and fewer expectations of their friends with developmental disabilities than they had of their nondisabled friends. She concluded that these "perceptions of friendship" experienced by the nondisabled peers are the exception, rather than the rule.

Peck, Donaldson, and Pezzoli (1990) studied positive social relationships between adolescents and their peers with developmental disabilities. The authors noted that the nondisabled adolescents who claimed friendship reported a "relaxed" friendship; one that was void of specific expectations and peer pressure. Their findings support the suggestion by Green, Schleien, Mactavish, and Benepe (in press) that nondisabled peers are willing to explore friendship with peers with developmental disabilities, yet reserve a special type of friendship that is different from the friendship relationships they enjoy with nondisabled friends. They further suggest that, unlike friendships with nondisabled peers, these "friendship" relationships do not pass the test of endurance and often are discontinued because the non-disabled child's "friend" with a developmental disability does not fit into their extended social networks.

Other researchers have countered that friendships formed in spite of the imbalances in reciprocated contributions to the relationship are far less prevalent than some studies indicate (Mest, 1988; Green & Schleien, 1991; Abery & Fahnestock, 1994). Green and Schleien noted that inflated estimates of close relationships between people with and without mental retardation may be the result of false perceptions, whereby "facades of friendship" are characterized as "truefriend" experiences. The authors suggested that claims of friendship or many reports of increased contact with friends in reality were experiences with near strangers.

Mistaken Perceptions

Schleien, Green, and Heyne (1993) suggested that mistaken perceptions of friendship stem from a variety of factors, including inexperience with true friendship, frequent and friendly relationships with nondisabled peers, and the perpetuation of beliefs (often by service providers) that increased social contact reflects friendship formation.

Clegg and Standen (1991) report that many people with developmental disabilities who have a friend experience a relatively superficial relationship often devoid of intimacy and empathy. They suggest that, considering the differences in the socialemotional levels between adults with and without developmental disabilities, superficial friendships for people with developmental disabilities are somewhat expected.

Shafer, Rice, Metzler, and Haring (1989) found that the severity of one's disability did not negatively effect the attitude of nondisabled adults concerning the social competence of their coworkers with developmental disabilities. However, they noted that the majority of contact between coworkers with and without disabilities related to task performance and that very little contact occurred during breaks and after-work hours.

Noting this difference between social acceptance and friendship, Abery and Fahnestock (1994) suggested that the severity of one's disability was not a factor preventing positive social interactions from occurring between adults with and without developmental disabilities. Citing the work of Parker and Boles (1990), they countered that, for individuals with developmental disabilities living in community settings, the specific residential site was a more powerful predictor of social inclusion than levels of disability.

They concede, however, and cite the work of Kennedy, Horner, and Newton (1989), that increased social inclusion that is the result of community living does not equate to the development of friendship. Kennedy, Horner, & Newton (1989) found that adults with mental retardation living in group homes had social contact with an average of 63.5 people over a 30-month period. Unfortunately, it was unlikely for the participants to maintain durable social relationships with nonfamily members.

A Barrier Exists

Research from a variety of disciplines suggest that discrepancies between the social skills necessary for friendship and those possessed and displayed by adults with disabilities contribute to the barrier that prevents social contacts with nondisabled peers from developing into friendships.

In a study of social interactions in the work place, Ferguson, McDonnell, & Drew (1993) found that nondisabled employees initiated interactions, especially non-work related interactions, more frequently than their peers with developmental disabilities. Additionally, many interactions for workers with developmental disabilities were between the worker and his or her job coach, resulting in decreased interactions with fellow workers.

Similar findings were found in school settings with adolescents of transitional age (Chadsey-Rusch, 1990). Interactions between adolescents with and without developmental disabilities often were task-related and dependent on contrived cues and/or feedback. The result was an all-too-frequent pattern of interaction between students and their teachers.

Chadsey-Rusch and Gonzalez (1988) write that workers who display inappropriate social skills not only are ostracized by fellow workers but also face possible job loss. They see difficulties experienced by workers with developmental disabilities as the result of a discrepancy between actual job-related social skills (e.g., teasing and joking), and the skills taught in social-vocational training programs. Unfortunately, even improved social skills and increased demonstrations of initiated, non-task related social interactions toward nondisabled adult peers automatically will result in reciprocated desires for friendship (Green, 1991).

Authors suggest several strategies for promoting friendship between adults with and without developmental disabilities. Abery and Fahnestock (1994), for example, demonstrated the effectiveness of extrinsic strategies for friendship facilitation for adults with developmental disabilities living in the community.

Combine Strategies

Green and Schleien (1991) caution that extrinsic strategies--those designed to prepare play environments to support positive social interactions--may not be appropriate for adults. Rather, the authors suggest combining the extrinsic strategies with intrinsic strategies (empowering the individual with friendship skills).

Bedini, Bullock, and Driscoll (1993) suggest including techniques for developing and maintaining friendship as part of leisure education in high schools, thus preparing individuals to make friends during the transition to adult-based living.

As long as individuals with disabilities are living, working, and playing in the community-at-large, efforts to promote friendships with nondisabled peers should continue. Current research efforts focus on identifying the barriers to friendship development and developing and understanding of the nature of relationships as they are perceived by adults with developmental disabilities.

While solutions to these barriers appear to be in an infancy, researchers continue to express faith that friendships between adults with and without disabilities can and will happen, although the relationship may be different from relationships formed between and among nondisabled friends. Future research efforts may focus on the nature of these special relationships and investigate their impact on the quality of life for both adults with and without developmental disabilities.

References

Abery, B.H. & Fahnestock, M. (1994). Enhancing the social inclusion of persons with developmental disabilities. In M. F. Hayden & B. H. Abery (Eds.), Challenges for a Service System in Transition: Ensuring Quality Community Experiences for Persons with Developmental Disabilities (pp. 83-119). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Bedini, L.A., Bullock, C.C., & Driscoll, L.B. (1993) The effects of leisure education on factors contributing to the successful transition of students with mental retardation from school to adult life. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 27, 70-82.

Burhmester, D. & Furman, W. (1986). The changing functions of friends in childhood: A neo-Sullivan perspective. In V. J. Derlega & B. A. Winstead (Eds.), Friendship and Social Interaction (pp. 41-62). New York: Springer-Verlag.