Friend or foe? -- training is essential for survival: split-second decisions can spare the lives of a friendly aircrew or result in oblivion for aircraft regarded as legitimate targets. Those onboard a warship or perceived to be a tempting target of opportunity on the battlefield are no less dependent upon the right decision being taken by a pilot. (Simulation Approach).

Alas! Despite the use of A identification friend or foe (IFF) systems, the dangers of fatal mistakes can never be entirely eliminated. So the development of a new IFF system such as the European Identification Systems' TSC/STR 2000 obliges the modification of in-service air-defence simulators. Faced with a threat to their survival, gunners will often shoot first and worry about the consequences later, but CAE's PC-based Interest target recognition trainer could help take guess-work out of air-defence.

Indeed, fear of imminent death may also influence the accuracy of manually operated air-defence weapons. It takes courage to hold gunfire until a target comes within range or to calmly keep tracking it until a surface-to-air missile impacts its prey. For a pilot under the direction of an air-defence centre, knowledge that the enemy can fire beyond-visual-range missiles will similarly ensure high levels of adrenaline.

Small wonder that of all aspects of simulation and training, that covering the broad spectrum of air-defence accounts for the highest level of investment -- both in monetary and technical development terms.

Defence Planning

Simulation can play as big a part in air-defence planning as in the training of those controlling the weapons. Thus, the area air-defence commander (AADC) programme developed by Saic not only automates planning, but by 2006 will also be installed on twelve Aegis cruisers to train crews. AADC will also train US Army operators in the coordination of Patriot and Thaad anti-missile systems.

For less complex scenarios, the Examino anti-aircraft mission planning concept was developed in Switzerland ten years ago by IPS, and the idea was subsequently expanded by Oerlikon Contraves to form the Caesar system. Employing new software, the Caesar also provides for both mission planning and commander/staff training in the deployment and use of anti-aircraft guns and missiles.

SaabTech Systems' Strics simulation system has been developed for training as well as test and evaluation. This provides Swedish Air Force air-defence centres with a complete simulated environment that is the same as they would encounter in live operations. Alenia Marconi Systems (AMS) operates the long-established Dundridge Training College, which has trained many students from some 40 countries in the art of air-defence control.

More recently, AMS has collaborated with the Royal Air Force of Oman in the development of an aircraft control college in which air-defence operations courses are run. These are available not only for the Sultanate but also for other Gulf Co-operation Council countries.

Real Targets

To provide air and ground crews with real targets against which to fire practice rounds a number of companies produce unmanned air vehicles or towed targets. Here, Meggitt Defence is a leader and has recently teamed with Cobham to form Integrated Target Services. Cobham owns FR Aviation which operates the world's largest fleet of Falcon 20s for use in training army and navy air-defence units and the two companies together will offer target services covering a wide spectrum.

Formed last year, Schreiner Target Services Canada (STSC) offers a wide range of aerial targets including one that replicates the radar signature of a full-scale helicopter. STSC has also introduced the Ptarmigan 2 high performance target based on an AES air-frame designed in the United Arab Emirates. Northrop Grumman having taken over Ryan is now a major source for high performance targets, while Meteor and the Aerospatiale element within Eads are both experienced suppliers of such drones.

Embedded Training

Year by year, technology has advanced to the point where companies in many countries have been able to develop low-cost methods of training anti-aircraft weapon operators. Many are PC based and most enable embedded mission rehearsal or practice in the art of dealing with threats.

The close range gunnery trainer developed by Lockheed Martin Information Systems UK is linked to operational guns without the need for modification. This system entered service with the Royal Navy in 1999. However, the Royal Navy's decision to close its coastal firing range near Plymouth provided an opportunity for Virtual Presence (owned by Muse Technologies) to supply the latest in head mounted display technology. The immersive virtual reality of this system avoids the shortcomings inherent in some image projection-based simulators when trying to display virtual targets at ranges of 6000 metres or more.

Saab Training Systems' laser-based simulators include devices that can be used with any type of anti-aircraft gun or missile. Their use has resulted in a 50 per cent reduction in ammunition costs and twice as many hits during live ammunition firing undertaken at the end of training.

Finland's Insta Visual Solutions is among a growing number of smaller companies that have experience in the production of visualisation and simulation software to run on PC platforms. Insta's range encompasses anti-aircraft guns as well as manpads. Indeed, the AAI Corporation, Kongsberg, Ruag Aerospace and Turkey's Aselsan are among the growing number of sources for manpads simulators.

To help Stinger gunners to learn how to cope with the real world, Nedinsco has developed the video-based live aircraft Stinger trainer. Dubbed Vlast, this enables users to engage aircraft near bombing ranges or other areas where targets of opportunity frequently occur.

Vulnerable to air attack, armoured fighting vehicles are often provided with guns designed to be fired remotely against such threats and to provide the required special training. Cell Interactive has produced the Cats GT simulator, which can be integrated with real weapon systems. Rafael has also produced an embedded trainer configurable to various weapon systems and suitable for network training.