Formal and informal parental involvement in school decision-making in Denmark.

The Danish primary and lower secondary schools, known as Folkeskoles, are publicly maintained schools with a national curriculum and common structure. Most Danish students (nearly 90 percent) attend Folkeskoles for nine years of compulsory education. The students stay with the same classmates - and, usually, with the same teacher - throughout the nine years. Teachers are responsible for communicating with all the students' parents. It is possible, over so many years together, for the teachers, students and parents to get to know each other very well, and to communicate frequently. This article discusses and critiques both formal and informal parental involvement in education decision-making in Denmark's Folkeskoles. The discussion begins with a description of the education and political trends that have led to an emphasis on decentralized decision-making and home-school cooperation in the Danish education system.

A New Concept of Learning

Danish educators increasingly view knowledge as a construction of one's own learning, not merely a transfer of information that is independent of context or interaction. When people meet to solve problems or to conduct work, they exchange information and experiences. The process of exchange creates new knowledge for all involved parties. Learning takes place in particular contexts that influence the results of these interactions. The context refers to the social climate, physical and conceptual structures, the culture, and the purpose of the human interactions.

Children's capabilities are different in an informal context, such as the home, than in a formal context, such as the school. Because children learn differently, and learn different things, at home and at school, it makes sense to combine the efforts of parents and teachers in encouraging and assisting children's learning. Thus, in the new concept of learning, parents have become constructive partners in education. We must find new ways for the primary partners in education - children, parents and teachers - to work together effectively.

This new view of learning has been pursued by educators and social workers in Denmark through a national education development program launched in 1987. The nationwide program was supported by local authorities to counteract the trend of fragmented knowledge acquisition, and to create greater coherence between learning in school and in society, and across age groups.

The Basic School Act of 1993 continued the emphasis on links between schools and their surrounding communities, using locally anchored curricula that are planned and implemented jointly by educators, parents and other citizens, as well as by sports clubs, and social and cultural institutions. Most important, this involvement focuses on the school curriculum. The results suggest that new and mutually valuable relationships develop, and children's learning is enhanced when parents are invited to help plan the curriculum and provide ideas, personal skills or other knowledge (Institute for Social Action and Development, 1996a, 1996b; Ravn & Hogsbro, 1997).

Despite the development of such partnerships around curricular content, educators have trouble accepting other kinds of involvement. Many teachers, for example, find it is difficult to engage and involve parents in education decisions. This difficulty is not always because of mistrust, but often is merely the result of old habits. Ultimately, both formal and informal efforts to increase families' and community members' involvement in Danish schools is affected.

Formal Parental Involvement in School Decision-making

Danish schools are required by law to have a school board consisting of 5 to 7 parents, elected by parents with children at the school, as well as 2 teacher representatives and 2 pupil representatives. Elections are held every four years. School boards develop and monitor school activities, to ensure that they follow the goals and objectives established by municipal councils. The school board's formal functions include:

* supervising school activities

* outlining or establishing principles for the school's activities, such as provision of special education, distribution of pupils in classes and parent-teacher meetings

* approving teaching materials and the school's budget

* drawing up school rules

* making recommendations on experimental and innovative work (within the targets and framework set by the municipal council), and on the appointment of head teachers and other school personnel.

Although the school boards were designed to be democratic, some have turned into managerial boards whose function and value are questioned. Many representatives have become dissatisfied and discouraged about the duties and leadership of the school-based decision-making body. Many of them believe that they are forced to deal with trifling matters, and they complain about time spent in unproductive meetings. While the parents on school boards expect cooperation, they often confront dissension, opposition and suspicion from teachers. Information that may be imperative for making good judgments and decisions is sometimes withheld from parents, or the leader or teachers claim to be the only ones with the expertise to make certain decisions affecting the school (Kristensen, 1997).

Parent representatives on school boards often work in a "grey zone," in which nothing is clearly defined or prepared. Therefore, they have no clear preconceptions of their duties, although their role reflects a level of formal involvement. Only a few schools allow parents a voice in education decisions.

This situation raises important questions about the nature and function of the school board in the Danish system of education. Is it a local democratic body allowing parents and teachers to meet on an equal footing and develop a true school community? Is it designed to supervise teaching and learning? Is it a conduit through which all parents in the school can have their wishes and needs recognized and addressed?

Presently, there is a great deal of discussion in Denmark about the benefits, advantages and values of school boards, in light of the fact that most do not live up to the expectations of either the authorities or of the parents serving on the boards. A recent Nordic citizenship study, however, advises citizens to refrain from drawing conclusions about the participation and influence of parents in the Danish school system solely on the basis of formal participation. The informal influence on school decision-making is probably just as important as the formal one (Andersen, Christensen, Langberg, Siim & Torpe, 1993).

Informal Parental Involvement

At the informal level, Danish parents participate in social meetings, excursions at the school or class level, alternative educational initiatives - like contributing to or taking part in cross-disciplinary projects - and other activities. The activities and level of participation depend more on the persons involved than on a formal structure, such as a school board or a written policy. That means that some schools conduct many activities with parents and community members, while other schools conduct few partnership activities. The ease with which teachers and parents communicate can determine whether everyone's knowledge and skills are effectively applied.

At one school, parents have been choosing curricular themes and topics for two classes. The two teachers have agreed with parents to integrate subjects and to use non-traditional teaching methods. Several times during the year, all of the parents in the class are invited to discuss how to organize curricular themes, as well as how to integrate subjects. Teachers even sought parents' suggestions on other subjects that might illustrate the theme. The two teachers found the parents' involvement and contributions to be most fruitful and their efforts well spent. The teachers encountered more questions than they were expecting, but they knew that the parents' motives were sound. The connections made it possible for more parents and children to discuss schoolwork knowledgeably at school and at home.

The informal (and formal) involvement of Danish parents in education decision-making is challenging. Many educators are not accustomed to the extent of mutual understanding that is required. New rules and structures may help, but more than rules will be required in order to lessen teachers' and parents' mistrust of each other. The model below can establish an infrastructure for generating better partnerships in today's Danish schools.

A Model of Joint Acting

This model, known as "Joint Acting" (Ravn, 1989, 1997), was developed to encourage greater communication and cooperation between home and school in both formal and informal activities. This approach serves to correct the often unequal relations that adversely affect home-school relations in Denmark. Briefly defined, Joint Acting is the process of enabling all education stakeholders to share ideas in an environment of mutual respect, and to ensure a logical reasoned communication process. Joint Acting ensures that no single party continuously determines the ideas that form the basis of discussions or actions in education. An effective communication process must yield a free exchange of ideas for all partners in the process.

Joint Acting recognizes four fundamental functions. Each function can best be explained by questions related to patterns of interaction:

* The expressive function - What opportunities exist for the people involved to express themselves? Is there time for everyone's ideas to emerge?

* The social function - What opportunities exist for enjoying a common experience? For people getting to know each other? To take planned action? To feel a sense of belonging?

* The informative function What opportunities do people have to exchange sufficient and high quality information on equally valued terms? To generate common and complementary knowledge? To share useful information with other educators and parents?

* The controlling function - What are the opportunities for the people involved to equally influence the proposed plans?

Joint Acting requires various ways of meeting and making decisions about education. It requires that everyone understand and agree upon four key areas: 1) content, 2) structure and organization, 3) intentions and possibilities, and 4) benefits. Content refers to the focus of parent-teacher discussions, which must be significant to the participants. Children's learning, therefore, must be central to these acts of communication. Structure and organization revolve around the ways that meetings and consultations are conducted, to ensure dialogue and mutual assistance. Intentions and possibilities refer to why particular topics are discussed, decisions are made and actions are taken. Benefits focus on who gains from the interactions and partnership activities.

Conclusion

The Danish Ministry of Education is encouraging Folkeskoles to work, in the near future, on developing and implementing education innovations, including those that relate to home-school relations. The goal is for the schools to plan and test new ideas, and integrate their work with the school culture. Although a period of trials, corrections and consolidation may be wise, it is clear that more parents will not get involved unless teachers develop the capacity to create effective communications with families and communities. Therefore, both teachers and parents will have to understand the processes of Joint Acting if they are to promote more effective dialogue and cooperative action at the formal and informal levels.

References

Andersen, J., Christensen, A., Langberg, K., Siim, B., & Torpe, L. (1993). Medborgerskab - Demokrati og politisk deltagelse (Citizenship, democracy and political participation). Denmark: Systime, Herning.

Institute for Social Action and Development. (1996a). Den lokalt forankrede folkeskole - Invitation til samarbejde med skolen. (The locally anchored folkeskole - An invitation to cooperate with the school.) Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Ministry of Education, Department of the Folkeskole.

Institute for Social Action and Development. (1996b). The open school: A video about three schools' cooperation with the local society. Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Ministry of Education, Department of the Folkeskole.

Kristensen, N. N. (1997). Tales of dust - User boards, participation, and political learning. Aalborg, Denmark: Aalborg University.

Ravn, B. (1989). Den paradoksale udfordring. (The paradoxical challenge - The folkskole and the parents in joint action.) Kroghs Forlag.

Ravn, B. (1997). The role of recent legislation in developing accountability. In B. Cohen & U. Hagen (Eds.), Children's services: Shaping up for the millennium. Supporting children and families in the UK and Scandinavia (pp. 236-242). Edinburgh, Scotland: The Stationery Office.

Ravn, B., & Hogsbro, K. (1997). Den lokalt forankrede undervisning, temahaefie 18. (The locally anchored curriculum, theme 18.) Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Ministry of Education, Department of Folkeskole.

Brite Ravn is Senior Researcher, Department of Education, Philosophy and Rhetoric, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.