Foreign language education in post-colonial English speaking Caribbean.

Foreign language education in the Caribbean has improved since the post-colonial era. However, language teaching and learning in this region needs to be revisited so that it caters to the needs of a broader society. This can be done with the implementation of better and more meaningful programs. It must go beyond high school and must now include elementary schools and persons in the broader community--businessmen, travelers and parents. This can only be achieved by a significant increase in the number of foreign language teachers who are better prepared. Foreign consulates in the Caribbean must also play an important role in language acquisition. Improved foreign language teaching and learning will result in better communication, greater job opportunities and improved trade among the English, Spanish and French speaking Caribbean countries.

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Foreign language pedagogy in almost every country in the world has gone through several stages within the last thirty or forty years and the Caribbean is no exception. Changes in population, world economies, communication, all contribute to determine the focus of foreign language teaching. In discussing foreign language education in post-colonial Caribbean countries this article looks into what was the status of language teaching during the colonial era, the present teaching practices and finally makes suggestions for the improving the teaching and learning of foreign languages in the region.

The Colonial Era Education

Most of the countries in the English speaking Caribbean received their independence in the 1960s. Before this time and for a while after, education was geared for life in Britain. All textbooks used were of British origin. Books such as the Royal Reader (see note) were used by students at almost all levels in elementary school. Even the names of the book, "Royal" indicated the origin. That is to say the islands were ruled by the British monarchy and this was reflected even in the names of the textbooks. Students who attended school in those days were familiar with the conversion table, which indicated how many cents equaled one shilling. It was referred to as the pounds, shillings and pence table. This was the money used in Britain and not in the Caribbean country. We studied about pounds, shillings and pence while we used dollars and cents in our country. They also read in their Nelson West Indian Reader of the black boy being scrubbed to make him white. There was very little, if anything, in those readers that related to the lives of persons living in the Caribbean.

Language Education, the Student and the Outcomes

Even foreign languages were not spared this British influence since most of the schools were modeled after the British system and offered what was known as a classical education, with the advanced study of Latin and Greek. The choice of languages to be taught was not related to proximity to, or relationship with, the countries who spoke foreign language. It was thought that a "learned" person knew Latin and there was sophistication in knowing a foreign language. The study of a foreign language was seen as an integral part of a sound education, even though the goals were mainly intellectual and literary (Maurice Report, 1959). Examples of foreign language textbooks used during that time were The New First Spanish Course, by Hills, Ford & Riviera which was published in 1942 and A New Course in French Composition by Kastner & Marks. Textbooks published later included Seguimos Adelante published in 1957 by Dean and Roberts (Moodie-Kublalsingh, 1993).

The teaching, like the text, centered around grammar-translation, preparing the student to regurgitate words learned, to recite grammar rules and to translate sentences. Foreign language study continued over the years to be a necessary and important goal of the secondary curriculum and apparently there was some measure of success. The teachers taught for the examinations, the objectives of which were to test only the reading and writing ability of the students. Whether Latin, French, or Spanish, they were all taught in the same manner. No emphasis was placed on the listening and speaking aspects of the language. Pronunciation and the cultural aspects of the languages were ignored. The student was tested on his or her ability to use the grammar and vocabulary in translation. The students did not have the freedom to create language. Successful students, therefore, could receive the highest grade possible in French or Spanish and still be unable to communicate even at the 1 + level of the Oral Proficiency Test, according to the standards set for listening and speaking by the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Languages (1986).

Selection of students to study a foreign language in those colonial days was based on ability and performance in other subject areas. Students in those pre- and early postcolonial days who entered high school were the academically outstanding students. Ability then, not motivation, was the determining factor in selection of students to study the language and possible success in these languages. However, even with the disadvantage of irrelevance, the foreign language student, like most students of those colonial days who entered secondary school had an advantage. He or she had dedicated teachers, parents who knew the value of education and were extremely interested in the education of their children. Few mothers worked outside the home and thus were able to devote more time to making sure that their children not only attended classes but did the homework assignments, whether it was the conjugation of verbs or the definition of a long list of vocabulary words. There was never a discussion of relevance to the outside world. Students were also motivated to study whatever language was being taught. One will not discuss whether it was "intrinsic" or "extrinsic" motivation--"I really enjoy learning this foreign language" or "Perform well or you will be spanked." These students of the pre-colonial era understood clearly that they were in school to learn and also that education (whatever type) was their passport to a better life. They were given the tools to learning. Student interest, parental concern and teacher guidance were the tools for success.

Foreign language teaching, as it was in the colonial days, with its overwhelming emphasis on grammar, vocabulary and translation gave its learners a distinct advantage in the learning of their official native language, which, in most Caribbean countries, is English. Hancock (1977) states that foreign language study facilitates mastery of the higher forms of one's native language. The result was that the student left school or graduated as a literate member of society. He or she not only understood the rules of the foreign language but his performance in English was improved because of his diligent study of the foreign language--its grammar and the vocabulary. Unfamiliar words could be recognized because the student knew its Latin roots or its similarity to French or Spanish.

The efforts put forth by these students also bore fruit in their success at external examinations set by universities-Oxford and Cambridge and London-in England. There was no great value placed on passing examinations set by examiners in the Caribbean. (In those pre-colonial times the Caribbean people were brought up to believe that only items (books, examinations, even clothes) that came from Britain were of value. Thus in all of the Caribbean countries an individual's intellectual ability was measured by that person's performance at these external examinations. In other words, academic success was measured by the number of subjects in which a student was successful in the Junior Cambridge, the Senior Cambridge and the General Certificate of Education examinations. These examination papers were sent to the Education Offices of the various Caribbean countries. They were administered by individuals from the Department of Education of each Caribbean country to which the examination was sent. The papers were then shipped to England to be graded.

The teachers taught for these external examinations, the objectives of which were to test only the reading and writing ability of the students. As their guide to teaching they employed the use of the syllabus and previous examinations.

Success in the foreign languages in these British examinations was only meaningful in that it indicated the number of subjects in which the student was successful and this aided the students in the acquisition of good jobs. Indeed, no one used foreign languages in their jobs. The graduates of the high schools, or secondary schools as they were called, who performed well in these British set examinations overwhelmingly went to work for the government. Teaching and jobs with the civil service or government were jobs for which they aspired. Very few went on to receive a university education and those who did went to Britain to further their education since there was not a university in the Caribbean in those days. A very small minority of these secondary school graduates went to work for businesses. Except for the few jobs as foreign language teachers, which the graduates of high school obtained, there was no opportunity to speak the language learned in school.

Post-Colonial Era Relevance in Education

During the 1960s and the early 1970s as more Caribbean countries gained their independence, politicians and even the general population began to discuss relevance in every aspect of their lives. There was a recognized need to chart one's own destiny in a changing Caribbean and, more globally, in a changing world market. These Caribbean countries began to insist on reorganizing the educational system such that it was more relevant to the lives of the young citizens who are beneficiaries of the education. They lived in the Caribbean, not Britain, thus their education and their total educational system should be relevant to the Caribbean. According to the Maurice Report (1959) a proposal was made to introduce the `modern school,' the emphasis of which would be on making education more relevant to the lives of the students. With this in mind an evaluation was made of the entire educational system. Who was educated? At what level was the education? What was the value of the textbooks? By whom and for whom were they written? These were among the questions for which answers were sought in almost every Caribbean country.

Beginning in the mid 1970s a gradual improvement in the educational system in the Caribbean took place. Over the years new meaning has been assigned to education. Education for all, relevant education, global education, education for the twenty-first century were becoming the watch words for the educational process in the region. One of the remarkable results of this evaluation and renewed focus on education was seen in Guyana where, in a few short years, several secondary schools were established, thus exposing more students to higher education, including the study of foreign languages. Spanish and, to a lesser extent, French became the languages of choice for students and teachers. This was accompanied by a gradual decrease in the need for the study of Latin. In Trinidad and Tobago, as stated in their Education Plan in 1983 the specific objectives of the teaching of foreign languages in the secondary schools were to develop oral proficiency in the foreign language and to teach foreign languages to promote intellectual discipline. To this they also added what was referred to as a new and important objective and this was to develop an awareness of the culture of the Spanish or French speaking peoples of the world especially the Caribbean area (Moms, 1989).

Replacement Examinations and a Change in Focus

With a view to assisting in providing a practical education for all students in the Caribbean, a council was set up. The Caribbean Examination Council--a body of educators in the Caribbean countries-replaced the British universities, among them Oxford and Cambridge, as the group that determined what subject matter should be taught and who is well educated or sufficiently knowledgeable in a specific subject area. This council now determines the syllabus and sets and evaluates the examinations in the region. Because they are now solely in charge of planning and implementing, foreign language teaching and learning have now taken on new meaning. According to the modern language syllabus for the Caribbean Examination the rationale for teaching a foreign language now include the following:

* development of self-confidence and social adjustment;

* development of cultural enrichment and the search for cultural identity;

* communication between peoples of different languages;

* transfer of scientific and technological knowledge at an international level;

* ability to function in practical, everyday situations;

* implementation of national development; (Caribbean Examination Council 5yllabus, 1989).

Based on the syllabus, the general objectives of foreign language teaching and learning are no longer grammar-translation but basic language skills for functioning in practical situations and a solid base upon which the student can continue to build and to perfect his communicative skills.

The new syllabus now reflects the growing trend in the teaching and learning of foreign languages in the region. Teachers now place more emphasis on communication and interaction, with opportunities to practice the language orally in various situations and to carry out a wide range of functions that they may find in the Spanish or French culture. Some aspects of the functional language which the teachers are now addressing include greeting, expressing gratitude, regret, agreement and disagreement, discussion of the family and family situations and at a higher level the individual student's view of the world. The oral section of the examination includes reading a passage aloud, answering questions based on a picture and participating in guided conversations (Moms, p.5).

The hope, with the new syllabus prepared and administered by their own people, is that it is relevant and that its graduates will be able to have a high level of communicative competence. How different is the learning process now that the direction has changed? The following distinct changes are noted:

* Students are given more opportunities to improve both their aural and oral skills in the foreign language classroom.

* They are encouraged to speak to the teacher and others in the class using the target language.

* Opportunities are provided for them to discuss cultural aspects of the language.

* They read aloud in the target language, thus improving their pronunciation.

* Their preparation is more purposeful because they are tested on all four skills

* Listening and speaking have now become important aspects of the tests and examinations.

Teachers usually teach for the test or examination. This is probably more true in the Caribbean and other developing countries where the performance of individuals on the examination is their ticket to a decent job. Therefore, in the area of foreign languages the new focus of the Caribbean Examination Council on listening and speaking has clearly encouraged more teachers to improve their focus on listening and speaking and the culture than they had previously been doing because it is included in these examinations.

Regional Initiatives

The entire region, either on its own or assisted by overseas grants, has taken significant steps to improve its foreign language programs. In Trinidad and Tobago and in Jamaica quality textbooks in both Spanish and French, written by persons in the profession-university lecturers, foreign language supervisors and secondary school teachers--are available for use by teachers and students. In Guyana textbooks are now written for use by modern language students at all levels. Some assistance has been given to the region by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. The Organization of American States has also given invaluable help to the Caribbean and Latin American Region. With funding from this latter organization Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Jamaica have all been able to set up Language Institutes. Trinidad has been a leader in the assistance it has given the region in this respect. The School of Languages, which is part of the National Institute of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology (NIHERST) has been able to bring together foreign language teachers in the region. They have hosted the Caribbean Language Conference and supported the attendees by coveting the cost of their travel and other expenses. At this conference they have been able to bring foreign language teachers from several countries in the hemisphere to discuss topics related to foreign language pedagogy in the region.

Foreign language textbooks are being prepared in the region to assist teachers in language teaching. These books are both communicative in nature and relevant to the culture of the country and its neighbors who speak the foreign language. The textbooks provide proof that its writers have looked beyond the traditional way of teaching and learning that was imposed upon them by the colonial era. A close examination of these texts would reveal a distinct improvement from those books used by foreign language students in the colonial days.

Relevance Revisited The Impact of Change in Focus

The change in focus in foreign language teaching and learning now makes the study of the language more meaningful than it was in the colonial days. How has this change impacted the outcomes of teaching and learning a language? As we embrace global education and prepare for the changing marketplace and the twenty-first century let us re-examine the new trend of language teaching in the region.

The discussion of relevance must now be centered on these questions: What languages must we in the English speaking Caribbean teach? What aspects of those languages chosen must we teach? What is our rationale for our selection of the language? To whom should our teaching be directed? Who are the persons/teachers who will perform the task of teaching? How will they measure success? The response to these questions will assist in charting a renewed emphasis on the reality of studying languages in the English speaking countries of the Caribbean and in all countries in the region.

What Language Must be Studied

As the region focuses its energy on competing in the global marketplace it must also focus on what languages should be taught. Now, let us, therefore, look at what languages should be taught and discuss whether the needs of the region are being met. As was said previously, foreign language teaching and learning, like all other aspects of education in the Caribbean must be relevant. Language students must see how the study of a specific language fits into their lives both now and in the near future. Educators in re-examining what languages will be taught in the schools must now look not only at the regional picture but the global picture. For those English speaking countries, their neighbors dictate that a knowledge of Spanish, French, Portuguese and to a lesser extent, Dutch, is necessary. However, it must also be remembered that Creole is the unofficial language spoken by many, if not most, of the inhabitants of the Caribbean countries.

Spanish is the official language of the large majority of the persons living the area that is referred to as the Caribbean. Foreign language teachers are mildly aware of this fact. Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico--three islands that account for eighteen of the twenty-five million people who live in the area speak Spanish. In addition, Guyana's neighbors in South America all speak a language other than English. It must also be remembered that Creole, though spoken by many in the region is not considered a language to be taught or studied since it is not an official language. Emphasis on Creole restricts students from communicating and understanding the language used by those in the government and business. However, one must also be aware that language students are being prepared to function in the twenty-first century where, because of the ease of travel and technology, miles no longer separate them. In a single supermarket in the United States the shoppers can find fruits and vegetables from twenty-three different countries almost all being in Latin America and the Caribbean. International borders mean less than they did in colonial times when there was limited travel, no television and very little international communication.

Efficiency and effectiveness of the educational process are to be taken into account when the decision of what foreign language should be taught is made. The various governments must also provide visionary, yet practical leadership, in selecting languages that will further the goals of the various countries of the Caribbean.

Many in the region still think that if an individual, regardless of where the individual lives, is to do business on the international marketplace, that individual must know English. An idea such as this is a relic of the colonial days when the countries with whom the region would be trading were mainly Britain, and to a lesser extent, the United States and Canada, countries that bought the goods and services at whatever price they wanted to pay. The language of trade now is the language of the customer. If the Caribbean countries want to communicate effectively with a businessman or any traveler they should be able to speak the language and understand the culture. With this view in mind and based on the population of the world, Chinese, Hindi, English and Spanish will be the most widely used languages of international trade in the future. The United Nations has designated Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Spanish and Russian as official languages (United Nations Report, 1991). With careful thought and planning the decision on what languages can and should be taught in the schools becomes an important, realistic and binding decision both for the learner who sees the need to study the language and the country that prepares its citizens to function in the world of the future where countries are now becoming more interdependent.

The Foreign Language Learners

As was stated previously, the students studying a foreign language in the colonial era were persons of high intellectual ability or persons who wanted to seem learned because foreign languages were considered subjects for the elite. Because only those who excelled in the 11 + examination (Scholarship, or Common Entrance as it is now known) attended high school, higher education was therefore geared to students of a supposedly high intellectual ability.

Governments and educators in their effort to make foreign language teaching and learning more relevant in a changing Caribbean and in a changing world must re-examine to whom this education is targeted. Ability, not motivation, can no longer be the determining factor for the study of a foreign language. Now, in a progressive Caribbean, foreign language study must be for everyone. Since preparation is the key that will unlock the door of opportunities for the twenty-first century, pre-schoolers, students in the elementary school, students in the secondary schools, university students should all be given the opportunity to study foreign languages. Studies on foreign language teaching and learning have shown that the earlier a student begins the study of a foreign language the better he or she is able to perform not only in that foreign language but in other subject areas. Aaron (1971) states that persons who have studied foreign languages for several years show improvements in vocabulary, grammar, and composition skills in their own language. Their pronunciation is much better since they are not inhibited in their oral language performance as the older learner. In addition, it takes many years to master a foreign language. Thus teaching of foreign languages should begin early and continue for the entire educational life of the learner. Exposing learners to various languages and cultures at an early age offers them experiential advantages in perception and concept development (Hancock, 1977).

In the Caribbean, language learning should extend beyond those receiving a formal education to include working children and those in adult education programs. It is much easier now to travel to all parts of the world than it was in the colonial days. Businessmen living in the Caribbean travel to the neighboring Spanish speaking countries, and also to China and Japan, among other countries. They travel to these countries not only because they can receive a fair price for goods and services but also because they feel comfortable doing business with that individual or country. Many persons engaged in the business of buying and selling without the support of the government ("traders" as they are called because they do business on a smaller scale than the big businesses) travel frequently to neighboring countries such as Venezuela, Brazil and Martinique to do business. Foreign language training geared specifically to the needs of these persons would significantly enhance their ability to do business with their neighbors.

Soccer, basketball, boxing and cricket are popular sports in the Caribbean region. Frequent competitions and friendly matches among teams and individuals in both the Caribbean and the Latin American countries are established. Players, coaches and referees traveling to participate in these games should have some working knowledge of the language spoken and the culture of the country to be visited. This knowledge would enhance their stay while they participate in the games because they will be able to communicate effectively in the language while not making any cultural faux pas. The adults studying a foreign language should also include persons in the various sectors of the working world--businessmen, nurses, doctors, social workers and tourist guides. These persons frequently have the opportunity to interact with persons who are non-English speaking and their services are considered essential to those persons whom they serve. Knowledge of the language and culture of their customers would enhance their ability to serve effectively. Imagine the frustration of a doctor who is anxious to help a person crying out for pain but cannot inquire where is hurting in the language of the patient. Think of a businessman who is willing to do business with someone in a foreign country but does not know the numbers well enough to negotiate a fair price for himself.

A careful assessment of the needs of the individuals in the country coupled with motivation, necessity and research are key factors in determining who should study the foreign language in this fast developing region where greater emphasis is being placed on tourism.

The Teaching and Learning Process

The teaching and learning process plays a great role in the preparation of students to become productive contributors in the world marketplace. What, therefore must foreign language educators do to make their contribution in the preparation of their students to function in this technological world of the twenty-first century where there is a significant increase in global communication. The great ease in the use of the telephone, fax machines, e-mail and Internet all make oral and written communication with any of their neighbors in the Caribbean, Latin America and even to anywhere in the world faster and more efficient.

Following the determination by the region, the country, the community and the school of what languages should be taught and who should learn these languages, based on a needs assessment, the next step should be to ascertain how the teaching and learning should be accomplished.

It must be noted, as was indicated earlier, in preparing foreign language students that language teaching and learning, like all aspects of education in the Caribbean, must be relevant. Teachers must assist students to realize the connection between their lives and the study of Spanish, French, or even Portuguese. Students in the English speaking Caribbean must see the need for fluency in one or all of these languages that are spoken by their neighbors.

As the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) has indicated, their foremost concern in designing the syllabus for this examination is twofold. It must encourage the participation of as many students in the Caribbean as possible in language learning that has a useful and purposeful growth for the students while at the same time ensuring that language learning contributes to their personal growth. Even though English is not considered a foreign language for persons in the English speaking Caribbean teachers are aware that greater emphasis should be placed on the methods used in teaching it since it is not the home language of many students in their classrooms. The CXC syllabus, both in Spanish and French, has led the way in its recognition of changes in the curricula of the foreign languages in all Caribbean countries. The emphasis both on the oral language and the culture of the countries that speak the language is an indication of this meaningful change and these are necessary ingredients in the teaching and learning process in foreign

Foreign languages must be geared to include teacher preparation, the proper use of textbooks, the use of language laboratories, the media and travel opportunities for both students and teachers.

The foreign language teachers must have a sound knowledge of the language and must be trained in methodology. Sandow (1996) tightly states that teachers must be well trained. These training programs must be organized around the communicative approach. Teachers most often teach the way they were taught. If they have not reached a high level of oral communicative skills in the language to be taught, they would be unwilling or unable to use these skills in teaching. The training given these teachers must assist them in providing their students with the ability to communicate effectively with other speakers of the language and with the ability to understand both the language and the culture of the foreign countries studied. Foreign consulates in the various Caribbean countries can play a significant role is assisting in the teaching of the language and culture.

Preparation of teaching materials and curriculum development are also necessary aspects of the teacher preparation program. Presently, there are teachers who are involved both in the preparation of teaching materials and curriculum development. However, more classroom teachers need to be included in this process. For the teachers incorporating new ideas on teaching into the curriculum and how to adopt texts and the teaching materials to desired outcomes are skills that the effective teacher needs. The teacher must be aware of ways to impart the cultural information and all forms of the latest technology and media--television, language laboratory, video, Internet, computers--into the teaching of the foreign language. Both teachers and teacher trainers must remember that the ultimate goal of the classroom teacher is the preparation of students to function adequately in a rapidly changing global marketplace. Furthermore, they must (a) have a desire to approach new ideas, (b) be aware of how students learn a foreign language and (c) have reasonable expectations of their students, allowing them to gain confidence and experience success.

Additionally, teachers need to come together continually for both in-service programs and at conferences to exchange ideas, discuss common problems, and possibly decide on common approaches to these problems. One such concern is how to teach foreign languages to students who still have problems learning the official language of their country? The first three Caribbean Language Conferences held biannually in Trinidad and the one held in Guyana are examples of teachers and educators in the region coming together to find ways to improve the profession. Attending these conferences were teacher--and foreign language administrators from Spanish, French and English speaking countries both in the Caribbean and in Latin America. At all of these conferences the exchange of dialog among the attendees was heartwarming and at the end of each of these meetings everyone left with great ideas and new teaching strategies, which could be implemented, in their individual program to enhance their teaching. The funding received by NIHERST and the assistance by individual countries now seems difficult to obtain. For this reason other countries have not been able to host the conference. Hopefully, they will, in the future, take turns in hosting this worthwhile endeavor so that the dialog that began among foreign language educators can continue.

The new student, the student who no longer lives in the colonial era, the student who wants to see relevance in whatever he or she does needs to be motivated to learn the language. Teachers must be aware of the research on how persons learn a foreign language since this knowledge will greatly assist them in understanding the needs of their students and planning the lessons and activities. Both students and teachers ought to be given opportunities to travel to countries where the language studied--whether it is Spanish, French, Portuguese--is spoken. Persons who come as visitors, persons working in the various embassies are among those in any country who speak a foreign language. The experiences gained by interacting with these persons provide the learner with an opportunity to practice and/or learn first hand both the language and the culture as they interact with these persons from other countries. The proximity of these countries to each other necessitates a closer link by exchange programs and study abroad opportunities so that the dialog between and among teachers and students could be enhanced.

Conclusion

A Look to the Future

Since the colonial era foreign language education, in all of the Caribbean, has undergone a significant change. Its emphasis has shifted from grammar-translation to learning to speak a language. The Caribbean Examination Council has brought heightened awareness to the oral aspect of language learning. Students learning languages now are better able to see the need to study that language. The approaches used are more functional. Because of the ease of travel a few students and teachers are given the opportunity to visit or to meet persons whose language they are studying. The textbooks, now written in the region, relate more to their lives than in the colonial days. The curriculum is more learner-centered, and conferences that give a limited number of teachers an opportunity to get together to discuss their concerns as foreign language educators are being held biannually.

What is now desperately needed to greater facilitate language learning in the region is a larger pool of language teachers and more and better training for them. During the past year foreign language teachers in the Caribbean were being heavily recruited to teach in New York where there is a severe shortage of teachers. This will result in an even more severe shortage of such teachers. Both in the region and in the specific countries there is a need for a closer link between teachers in the English speaking countries and those in the Spanish and French speaking countries. A teacher who does not know both the subject matter and the methodology-how to teach the specific foreign language--cannot be effective. The two aspects are needed to facilitate learning.

New technology must be incorporated into the teaching and learning process. Teachers must be trained in the use of the new technology so that their students can benefit. However, the lack of use of adequate technology must never inhibit the dedicated teachers from creating the best learning environment for the students.

Language teaching is an exciting profession. It is the only subject area whereby we can use all other subject areas in its teaching. Math, science, geography, poetry and music are but a few of the subjects which can be taught using the foreign language.

Do teachers know all that there is to know in teaching and learning languages? The answer is undoubtedly negative. Foreign language educators must, therefore, continually experiment with new ideas and participate in research in their classrooms. They must never cease to re-examine the part they play in the teaching and learning process as they prepare their Caribbean students to function effectively in this new millennium.

Notes 1. The Royal Reader and Nelson West Indian Reader, two readers used extensively in the primary schools in the Caribbean were published by Thomas Nelson of International Thompson Group, New Brunswich School Series. The books were published from 1878 until 1970.

2. Primary education extended for eight years. Students who did not go on to high school remained in the primary school and took what was called School Leaving Examination, during their seventh or eighth year.

References

American Council on Teaching of Foreign Languages. (1986). ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY. 1986

Caribbean Examination Council. Modern Language Syllabus--French and Spanish. Bridgetown, Barbados.

Carton, A. S. (1971). Inferencing: A Process in Using and Learning Foreign Language, in Paul Pimsleur and Terence Quin (eds.), The Psychology of Second Language Learning.

Government of Trinidad & Tobago. Education Plan for Trinidad and Tobago 1985-1990. (1985). Ministry of Education, Port-of-Spain.

Hancock, C. R. (1977). Second Language Study and Intellectual Development. Foreign Language Annals, 10 (1).

Morris, J. (1989). Goals for Foreign Language Teaching in the Caribbean. Caribbean Language Conference: A Regional Perspective. NIHERST, Trinidad. p. 44-52.

Moodie-Kublalsingh, S. (1993). Learner-Centered Curricula: Issues of Interest from the Caribbean Perspective. Proceedings of the Third Language Conference: Towards the Global Economy, Trinidad and Tobago.

Sadow, Stephen. (1996). Career Development for the Language Professional. Foreign Language Annals, 29(2).

United Nations Department of Conference Services, Translation Division: Docu-mentation. (1991). Terminology Bulletin No. 324. United Nations.

Ivy A. Bakker-Mitchell, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Director, Honors Program, Department of Languages and Literature, Florida A&M University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Ivy A. Bakker-Mitchell, Associate Professor, Department of Languages and Literature, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307.