Faculty and administrative support for strategic planning: a comparison of two- and four-year institutions.This article examines faculty and administrator support for strategic planning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. activities at two-year and four-year colleges and universities. Drawing data from public institutions in Kentucky Kentucky, state, United States Kentucky (kəntŭk`ē, kĭn–), one of the so-called border states of the S central United States. It is bordered by West Virginia and Virginia (E); Tennessee (S); the Mississippi R. , a state that has pursued fundamental change in its higher educational system since 1997, the study compared faculty and administrator attitudes, and it measured the impact of five predictor variables Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression) variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values . Administrators at both types of institutions report more support for strategic planning than do faculty. However, the data also reveal significant differences between faculty and administrators on each of the five predictor variables. The article closes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for the cultivation cultivation, tilling or manipulation of the soil, done primarily to eliminate weeds that compete with crops for water and nutrients. Cultivation may be used in crusted soils to increase soil aeration and infiltration of water; it may also be used to move soil to or of support for strategic planning at both two- and four- year institutions in the context of state-driven postsecondary reform. Introduction Strategic planning is one of the most pervasive pervasive, adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. and, arguably ar·gu·a·ble adj. 1. Open to argument: an arguable question, still unresolved. 2. That can be argued plausibly; defensible in argument: three arguable points of law. , most important management activities in higher education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. at the beginning of the 21st century. Given its near ubiquity Ubiquity See also Omnipresence. Burma-Shave their signs seen as “verses of the wayside throughout America.” [Am. Commerce and Folklore: Misc. , it is surprising that little is known about the factors that define and affect successful strategic planning at colleges and universities (Cope, 1987; Kotler & Murphy, 1981; Shirley Shir·ley , William 1694-1771. British colonial administrator who was governor of Massachusetts (1741-1749 and 1753-1756) and commanded British forces in the French and Indian War. , 1988; Mintzberg, 1994). It appears particularly important that the sources of faculty and administrative support and opposition to strategic planning become better understood as institutions attempt to navigate (1) "Surfing the Web." To move from page to page on the Web. (2) To move through the menu structure in a software application. difficult and confusing con·fuse v. con·fused, con·fus·ing, con·fus·es v.tr. 1. a. To cause to be unable to think with clarity or act with intelligence or understanding; throw off. b. economic, political, and policy environments (Garmon The garmon (Russian: гармонь) is a kind of Russian button accordion, a free-reed wind instrument. , 1984; Peterson Pe·ter·son , Oscar Emmanuel Born 1925. Canadian jazz pianist. A prolific recording artist noted for his technical skill, he is best known for work produced with his own trio (1953-1965). & White, 1992; Welsh & Metcalf, 2003; Rhoades, 2000). One of the factors complicating com·pli·cate tr. & intr.v. com·pli·cat·ed, com·pli·cat·ing, com·pli·cates 1. To make or become complex or perplexing. 2. To twist or become twisted together. adj. 1. institutional strategic planning is the effort to reform state higher education systems. In 1997, the state of Kentucky embarked upon an ambitious effort to restructure its higher education system. The Kentucky Postsecondary Educational Improvement Act of 1997 (KPEIA) initiated profound changes in the coordination, governance Governance makes decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists either of a separate process or of a specific part of management or leadership processes. Sometimes people set up a government to administer these processes and systems. , and financing of the public universities, community colleges, and technical colleges in the state. At the heart of postsecondary reform in Kentucky is a desire on the part of policy makers to improve the alignment of institutional behavior with state policy goals (Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education, 2001). KPEIA forced the public institutions to reinvigorate re·in·vig·o·rate tr.v. re·in·vig·o·rat·ed, re·in·vig·o·rat·ing, re·in·vig·o·rates To give new life or energy to. re their strategic planning activities by promoting greater participation and support by campus constituencies, particularly faculty and administrators (Rabuzzi, Carson, & Conklin, 2001; Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education, 2001). The purpose of this article is to explore the sources of faculty and administrative support for strategic planning in a reform environment, measuring the impact of institutional type and five attitudinal variables. Drawing from the experience in Kentucky, the research attempts to address three research questions about faculty and administrative support for the implementation and development of strategic planning activities at two- and four-year institutions. First, how do faculty and administrators at two-year institutions compare with their counterparts at four-year institutions in their support for strategic planning? Second, within each type of institution, how do faculty and administrators compare in their support for strategic planning? Third, if there are differences in these two comparisons, what factors help explain them? Factors Affecting Support for Strategic Planning Research and commentary on strategic planning in higher education emphasizes three consistent themes. First, the need for strategic planning has intensified in·ten·si·fy v. in·ten·si·fied, in·ten·si·fy·ing, in·ten·si·fies v.tr. 1. To make intense or more intense: in higher education because of severe resource constraints CONSTRAINTS - A language for solving constraints using value inference. ["CONSTRAINTS: A Language for Expressing Almost-Hierarchical Descriptions", G.J. Sussman et al, Artif Intell 14(1):1-39 (Aug 1980)]. and increased expectations for accountability from external agencies such as state governments. Anderson Anderson, river, Canada Anderson, river, c.465 mi (750 km) long, rising in several lakes in N central Northwest Territories, Canada. It meanders north and west before receiving the Carnwath River and flowing north to Liverpool Bay, an arm of the Arctic (2000), Crittenden and Crittenden (2000), and Mintzberg (1994) studied changing environmental conditions and conclude that all large organizations need sophisticated planning processes to optimize optimize - optimisation the attainment of organizational goals. In the literature on higher education, Glaister and Falshaw (1999), Cope (1987), Keller (1993), Shirley (1988), and Waters (1996) are particularly eloquent el·o·quent adj. 1. Characterized by persuasive, powerful discourse: an eloquent speaker; an eloquent sermon. 2. on the need for institutions to implement strategic planning activities in the current fiscal environment. Second, successful strategic planning is dependent upon broad-based broad-based Of or relating to an index or average that provides a good representation of the overall market. The S&P 500 and NYSE Composite are generally regarded as broad-based stock indexes, while the popular Dow Jones Industrial Average is biased support and participation by organizational constituents. Among colleges and universities, this finding pertains particularly to participation by both faculty and administrators (Dyson & Foster, 1982; Bryson & Bromley, 1993; Hurst & Peterson, 1992). Third, while the effectiveness and success of strategic planning is dependent on widespread support for it, college and university administrators tend to be more supportive of strategic planning activities than are faculty. However, faculty support is critical to institutional success and is particularly sensitive to a number of communication and organization variables (Garmon, 1984; Peterson & White, 1992; Rhoades, 2000; Welsh & Metcalf, 2003). A review of research literature and commentary on support for strategic planning in higher education suggests that faculty and administrative support are affected by five predictor variables: 1. Level of Involvement. Institutional management processes may inhibit inhibit /in·hib·it/ (in-hib´it) to retard, arrest, or restrain. in·hib·it v. 1. To hold back; restrain. 2. broad campus support for strategic planning because they may not encourage participation and personal involvement of campus participants. The involvement of campus participants in any strategic activity is crucial to their receptivity receptivity, n the state of being open to the action of a drug or homeopathic remedy. See also reactivity. to innovation. Level of involvement was identified as an important predictor of the degree to which strategic activities were successfully implemented at two- and four-year institutions in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. (Garmon, 1984; Peterson & White, 1992; Welsh & Metcalf, 2003). 2. Depth of Implementation. Perceptions of the importance of strategic planning activities can be affected by the extent to which they are integrated into the overall fabric of the institution (Birnbaum, 2000). Larson, Milton, and Schmidtlein (1988), Waters (1996), Peterson and White, (1992), and Welsh and Metcalf (2003) found that faculty and administrative support for strategic activity is enhanced by increased depth of the implementation of these activities. 3. Institutional Planning Model. Studies reveal that many variations of strategic planning models exist. Planning models differ by organization, resources, environment, participants, and a multitude of other factors. Kukalis (1991), Waters (1996), and Tierney (1993) suggest that an open model results in favorable fa·vor·a·ble adj. 1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds. 2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis. 3. attitudes, whereas a closed or exclusive process generates a lack of support for strategic planning initiatives. 4. Institutional Decision-Making decision-making, n the process of coming to a conclusion or making a judgment. decision-making, evidence-based, n a type of informal decision-making that combines clinical expertise, patient concerns, and evidence gathered from Model. The manner in which decisions are made can either build support for the planning process or diminish its credibility in the eyes of constituents. Administrators play a key role in strategic planning by communicating the process, involving stakeholders Stakeholders All parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. , and ensuring proper advancement. Tierney (1993) argues that strategic planning sets the framework for decision making. Since institutions are structured so that administrators control information, it is important that other constituents, including faculty, have a voice that is distinct from the administration. Thus, institutions vary by the extent to which the decision making process is participatory or autocratic (Kukalis, 1991; Garmon, 1984; Waters, 1996). 5. Support for State Reform. The success or failure of state reform is dependent upon the cooperation of public postsecondary institutions. Preliminary indications suggest that institutional leaders embrace the basic elements of reform in Kentucky as the context for strategic planning (Rabuzzi et al., 2001; Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education, 2001). What is not clear is the extent to which faculty and midlevel mid·lev·el n. The middle stage or level, as in a series, course of action, or career. academic administrators support the strategic planning activities prompted by the state (Garmon, 1984; Waters, 1996; Rhoades, 2000). Research Methodology Population and Sample The research questions were addressed through a mailed survey distributed to full-time faculty and academic administrators in Kentucky's public two and four-year postsecondary institutions during the spring 2003 semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s . The study identified two groups of faculty participants. A working level of knowledge regarding campus governance, strategic planning, and the impact of state reform initiatives on the institution was important for one group of research participants. Faculty members with experience in these activities may possess a greater level of understanding of institutional planning processes and how their activities impact outcomes at a variety of organizational levels. Thus, one group included faculty who participate in campus governance units, including senates, academic councils, or other committees with a faculty majority (Gilmour, 1991). Names of faculty members who participated in campus planning activities were acquired through (1) direct contact with institutional planning or research offices, (2) a review of planning materials listing committee members, and (3) a review of institutional documents listing planning participants. The names were then matched to data sets provided by the institutions and coded as faculty planners. An additional interest of the research was to ensure that a broader sample of faculty members was included to minimize respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. bias. Therefore, a stratified stratified /strat·i·fied/ (strat´i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat·i·fied adj. Arranged in the form of layers or strata. random sample of faculty members not listed as participants on campus governance units was also selected from the remaining population. These were coded as faculty non-planners. There was no duplication duplication /du·pli·ca·tion/ (doo-pli-ka´shun) 1. the act or process of doubling, or the state of being doubled. 2. of names of potential respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. in the two lists. The labeling of the two groups as faculty planners and faculty non-planners is consistent with previous studies in the literature (Karger & Malik Noun 1. malik - the leader of a town or community in some parts of Asia Minor and the Indian subcontinent; "maliks rule the hinterland of Afghanistan under the protection of warlords" , 1975; Wood & LaForge, 1979). Faculty data were collected through direct contact with institutional research officers at the public institutions in the state. The institutional research officers provided standard data sets that included names, mailing addresses, rank, department, school, tenure stares, gender, and ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic of all full-time instructional faculty at their institution as defined by the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, often abbreviated IPEDS, is the core postsecondary education data collection program for the National Center for Education Statistics, a part of the United States government. (IPEDS IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System IPEDS Interactive Public Exhibits and Digital Signage ), which is the core postsecondary education data collection process for the National Center for Education Statistics The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), as part of the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences (IES), collects, analyzes, and publishes statistics on education and public school district finance information in the United States; conducts studies (NCES NCES National Center for Education Statistics NCES Net-Centric Enterprise Services (US DoD) NCES Network Centric Enterprise Services NCES Net Condition Event Systems ). Institutional administrators are typically involved in strategic planning. Academic administrators are especially likely to participate in strategic planning as they possess specific knowledge regarding their academic units and the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats they face. Academic administrators were identified as employees in the public institutions in Kentucky who hold the position of president, provost, academic vice-president, or dean of an academic unit or division. They were identified through the 2003 Higher Education Directory. Since the population of all academic administrators was selected for this research, no sampling procedures were required for academic administrators. Similarly, no sampling procedures were needed for faculty planners. Faculty non-planners were selected through a stratified random sample with the strata being the institution of employment. The actual respondent pool (from both two- and four-year institutions) of 844 included 238 faculty planners, 510 faculty nonplanners, and 96 academic administrators, representing respective response rates of 59.2%, 60.1%, and 78.7%. A test for response bias indicated no significant relationship among respondent groups and responses to the questionnaire, [chi](1) = .029, ns. The number of cases greatly exceeded the minimal N of 364 derived from the statistical power requirements for multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. adopted by the researchers, which included (a) an ability to detect an R squared of at least .20, (b) a significance level of .01, and (c) a statistical power of .90 (Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. & Cohen, 1983). The respondent pool included 165 faculty and 34 academic administrators from two-year institutions. The average length of service in their current position for faculty respondents was between 12 and 14 years. The average length of service for academic administrators was approximately 7 years. However, the average length of service for total years worked in higher education was higher for academic administrators at approximately 25 years compared to approximately 19 for faculty planners and 17 for faculty non-planners. Instrument Development The survey instrument included six indices. The dependent variable, support for strategic planning, was defined as the degree to which respondents report that strategic planning activities are important at their institution, based on a Support for Strategic Planning Index comprised of seven Likert-style attitudinal questions. The five predictor variables were drawn from conclusions of the literature review and were operationalized as indices comprised of between 7 and 13 Likert-style questions. The indices included the following: 1. Level of Involvement Index, which measures the degree of the respondent's participation in planning activities; 2. Depth of Implementation Index, which measures the respondent's perception of the degree to which the institution's planning efforts have been implemented; 3. Type of Planning Model, which measures the respondent's perception of the extent to which the institution's planning process is participatory or exclusive; 4. Type of Institutional Decision Making Index, which measures the respondent's perception of the extent to which the institution's governance process is participatory or autocratic; and 5. Support for State Reform Index, which measures the respondent's support or opposition to the Kentucky Postsecondary Education Improvement Act. The specific items comprising each index are included in the Appendix to this article. Validity and Reliability To ensure the validity of the survey instrument used for this research, a panel of postsecondary education experts in strategic planning and survey methodology reviewed the instrument. Panelists evaluated each survey item and rated the degree to which it measured the indices. Questionnaire items were revised or removed based on panel member feedback. To test the reliability of the survey instrument, a pilot study was conducted involving 10 academic administrators and 30 faculty members from the survey population. The pilot process provided data to test the internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliability using Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. . The
response rate for the pilot process was 52.5%. All of the indices
yielded coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int)1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. alpha scores over the desired .70 level. Findings and Analysis The data in the study were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. using two methods: t-tests to compare group means and hierarchical A structure made up of different levels like a company organization chart. The higher levels have control or precedence over the lower levels. Hierarchical structures are a one-to-many relationship; each item having one or more items below it. multiple regression analysis to identify predictors of support for strategic planning. In an initial analysis of the first research question, an analysis of variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality was performed with the variable group including administrators, faculty planners, and faculty non-planners. There was a significant difference among the mean scores on the level of support index, F(2, 707) = 22.56, p < .001. A Tukey multiple comparison procedure was used to compare the means of all three respondent groups, with the significance level set at .05. While the data revealed that the mean score of the administrators (M = 4.43, SD = .647) exceeded that of both of the faculty groups, the two faculty groups did not differ. For faculty planners, the mean score was 3.94 (SD = .87); for faculty non-planners, the mean score was 3.79 (SD = .88). The difference was not statistically significant. Thus, the notion that faculty involved in governance processes are more likely to support institutional strategic activities was not supported by this data. Therefore, subsequent comparisons combined both faculty groups. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. for the dependent variable and each of the five predictor variables for the four comparison groups. In order to analyze the first two research questions, t-test t-test, n an inferential statistic used to test for differences between two means (groups) only. This statistic is used for small samples (e.g., N < 30). Also called t-ratio, stu-dent's t. comparisons were used to measure differences in support for strategic planning activities both across and within institutional type. In response to the first research question regarding faculty and administrator differences by institutional type, Table 2 demonstrates that the sample yielded no significant differences between (1) faculty at two-year institutions compared with their counterparts at four-year institutions, and (2) administrators at two-year institutions compared with their counterparts at four-year institutions in their support for strategic planning activities. The data also reveal no significant differences when administrators are compared by institutional type on any of the five predictor variables. For faculty, however, there were significant differences by institutional type for each of the five predictor variables with two-year institutional faculty reporting more involvement in strategic planning (t = -6.56, df = 641, p < .001), greater depth of implementation of strategic planning (t = -4.28, df = 627, p < .001), more participatory planning Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm which emphasises involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning. Article Origins In the UN Habitat document Building Bridges Through Participatory Planning processes (t = -5.74, df = 648, p < .001), and more collegial col·le·gi·al adj. 1. a. Characterized by or having power and authority vested equally among colleagues: "He . . . decision making processes (t = -2.19, df = 635, p < .05) at their institutions than faculty at four-year institutions. However, faculty at four-year institutions reported greater support for state reform efforts than did faculty at the two-year institutions (t = 3.01, df = 545, p < .01). In response to the second research question regarding differences within each institutional type, the t-tests in Table 2 reveal a consistent pattern of significant (p < .001) differences at both two-year and four-year institutions. In each case, including the dependent variable and the five predictor variables, administrators at both institutional types report more support for strategic planning, more involvement, greater implementation, more participation, and more collegial decision making. Administrators also report higher levels of support for the state's postsecondary reform efforts than do faculty. The third research question sought to explain the relationship between respondent status (whether faculty or administrator) and support for strategic planning activities at both two-year and four-year institutions. The t-tests revealed that administrators at both types of institutions are more likely to support strategic planning than are faculty, but what accounts for this relationship? Hierarchical multiple regression was used to determine the relationships among the predictor variables and the dependent variable (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). The analysis allows a determination of the extent to which the five attitudinal variables, respondent status, and interaction effects predict support for strategic planning. This use of multiple regression is equivalent to the analysis of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. , where the effects of an independent variable are tested for significance following the removal of variance due to the covariates. To perform the analysis, predictor variables are entered into the regression equation Regression equation An equation that describes the average relationship between a dependent variable and a set of explanatory variables. according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. a three-step process. Step one of the regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. is a test of the effect of the control variables on the dependent variable. In this study, the five attitudinal variables constitute the covariates and are entered into the equation first, according to the strength of their relationship with the dependent variable. Step two is a test of whether the independent variable accounts for any significant variance in the dependent variable after removing effects of the covariates. Thus the independent variable, respondent status (faculty or administrator), was entered into the regression equation at this step. Step three is a test of the validity of the preceding step by entering four interaction variables into the regression equation. For the analysis of covariance to be valid, there should be no significant interaction effects involving the covariates and the independent variable. The interaction variables were created by multiplying mul·ti·ply 1 v. mul·ti·plied, mul·ti·ply·ing, mul·ti·plies v.tr. 1. To increase the amount, number, or degree of. 2. Mathematics To perform multiplication on. the value of each of the control variables by the independent variable using procedures described by Cohen and Cohen (1983). A zero-order correlation analysis of the predictor and dependent variables for respondents at the two-year institutions revealed that all five of the predictor variables have significant positive correlations Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation with the dependent variable, correlations ranging from .430 to .637. For respondents from the four-year institutions, the zero-order correlation analysis reveals that all five of the predictor variables have positive, but not significant, correlations with the dependent variable. Table 3 presents a summary of the hierarchical regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. and the values for [R.sup.2], [DELTA][R.sup.2], and [DELTA]F at each step of the analysis for both institutional types. The five control variables are significantly related to the dependent variable for the two-year institutions ([R.sup.2] = .540) and the four-year institutions ([R.sup.2] = .395). The second step of the regression analysis indicates, contrary to the expectations of researchers, that the independent variable (respondent status) was not a significant predictor of support for strategic planning activities at either the two-year or four-year institutions, after taking into account the effects of the five control variables. For the two-year institutions, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .000, ns. For the four-year institutions, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .003, ns. The third step indicates that there was no significant change due to the addition of the interaction variables. For both types of institutions, [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .003, ns. In summary, each of the five attitudinal variables is a significant predictor of the dependent variable, but the respondent status does not account for any additional significant variance. Furthermore, no interaction effects are evident. The lack of effects from the independent variable and the interaction variables means that it is appropriate to produce a single regression equation for faculty and administrators at both types of institutions to relate the control variables and the dependent variable. Table 4 presents key information on the regression equation: B coefficients, beta coefficients, and tests of significance. Table 4 presents some mixed results, as only two variables are significant predictors of support for strategic planning at two-year institutions: (a) Level of Involvement, [beta] = .242 (p < .01), and (b) Type of Institutional Decision Making, [beta] = .323 (p < .01). Only one variable is a significant predictor of support for strategic planning at four-year institutions: Depth of Implementation, [beta] = .355 (p < .01). Implications for Research and Practice Given the inconsistent findings in the regression analysis, a factor analysis was also conducted following the collection of the data to investigate the legitimacy LEGITIMACY. The state of being born in wedlock; that is, in a lawful manner. 2. Marriage is considered by all civilized nations as the only source of legitimacy; the qualities of husband and wife must be possessed by the parents in order to make the offspring of the indices and to validate To prove something to be sound or logical. Also to certify conformance to a standard. Contrast with "verify," which means to prove something to be correct. For example, data entry validity checking determines whether the data make sense (numbers fall within a range, numeric data their use in this research. The initial factor analysis and resultant This article is about the resultant of polynomials. For the result of adding two or more vectors, see Parallelogram rule. For the technique in organ building, see Resultant (organ). In mathematics, the resultant of two monic polynomials scree plot strongly suggested that six factors accounted for approximately 54% of the variance among items. The factor analysis was rerun re·run n. The act or an instance of rebroadcasting a recorded movie or a recorded television performance. tr.v. re·ran , re·run, re·run·ning, re·runs To present a rerun of. retaining the six factors and specifying varimax rotation. According to DeVellis (1991), varimax rotation maximizes the variance of squared loadings and is the most common orthogonal At right angles. The term is used to describe electronic signals that appear at 90 degree angles to each other. It is also widely used to describe conditions that are contradictory, or opposite, rather than in parallel or in sync with each other. rotation method. Results from the factor analysis produced five of six factors closely resembling indices derived from the literature review. Questions in the Depth of Implementation index resulted in ten of thirteen index questions included in the second factor. Questions in the Level of Involvement index resulted in nine of nine index questions included in the third factor. Questions in the Support for Strategic Planning index resulted in seven of the seven index questions included in the fourth factor. Questions in the Support for Reform Initiative index resulted in seven of seven index questions included in the fifth factor. However, results from the factor analysis combined questions included in the Type of Institutional Decision Making and Type of Planning Model Implemented indices into a single factor--factor 1. This one factor included 16 of the 19 combined questions included in the two indices. This finding suggests that these indices share common characteristics and can be combined into a common index--an observation that is very important for future research on this topic. The implementation of strategic planning efforts at both two- and four-year institutions is not likely to succeed without the active support of a broad range of institutional constituents. Without the support of faculty and administrators, strategic planning may be discarded dis·card v. dis·card·ed, dis·card·ing, dis·cards v.tr. 1. To throw away; reject. 2. a. To throw out (a playing card) from one's hand. b. as another failed management fad A management fad is a derisive term use to characterize a change in philosophy or operations that sweeps through businesses and institutions, and then disappears when enthusiasm for it wanes. (Birnbaum, 2000). Administrators and faculty may be interested in these results as a means of enhancing their strategic planning efforts, although the implications may be slightly different at two-year and four-year institutions. Senior administrators and others responsible for strategic planning may want to note that the five attitudinal control variables all contributed to support for strategic planning for faculty and administrators. Administrators may also want to consider that the structural features of their institutions may affect the cultivation of support for strategic planning. The data indicate that, at the two-year institutions, level of involvement and type of institutional decision making appeared to have the most important impact on support for strategic planning activities. Birnbaum (1989) suggests that senior administrators at two-year colleges may be better able to implement objectives-based management strategies, such as strategic planning, than are their counterparts at four-year institutions because of clearer lines of authority and more hierarchical organizational features. However, it may also be important to focus attention on deepening deep·en tr. & intr.v. deep·ened, deep·en·ing, deep·ens To make or become deep or deeper. Noun 1. deepening - a process of becoming deeper and more profound the level of involvement of institutional constituents in the planning process, as well as making the decision-making process more participatory. At the four-year institutions, depth of implementation appeared to have the most important impact on support for strategic planning activities. Administrators may want to "close the loop" on planning activities, ensuring that they have an impact on the institution. These results mean that administrators and faculty responsible for strategic planning at their institutions may want to focus attention on these variables to help cultivate cul·ti·vate tr.v. cul·ti·vat·ed, cul·ti·vat·ing, cul·ti·vates 1. a. To improve and prepare (land), as by plowing or fertilizing, for raising crops; till. b. support for their planning efforts. Following Birnbaum (1989), the political contests and organized anarchy ANARCHY. The absence of all political government; by extension, it signifies confusion in government. of comprehensive and research universities may complicate com·pli·cate tr. & intr.v. com·pli·cat·ed, com·pli·cat·ing, com·pli·cates 1. To make or become complex or perplexing. 2. To twist or become twisted together. adj. 1. the interest in cultivating support for strategic planning. To cultivate support at these institutions, it is important for campus leaders to pay attention to the processes that have been constructed to feed the recommendations from planning back into institutional change and resource allocation resource allocation Managed care The constellation of activities and decisions which form the basis for prioritizing health care needs processes. Respondents were invited to offer comments about strategic planning on the questionnaire. Many faculty voiced skepticism skepticism (skĕp`tĭsĭzəm) [Gr.,=to reflect], philosophic position holding that the possibility of knowledge is limited either because of the limitations of the mind or because of the inaccessibility of its object. toward strategic planning in comments offered on the returned questionnaires. One faculty member commented on the question of the benefits of strategic planning by saying that "in principle 'yes,' but in practice 'no' since the process [at my institution] is simply window dressing Window Dressing A strategy used by mutual fund and portfolio managers near the year or quarter end to improve the appearance of the portfolio/fund performance before presenting it to clients or shareholders. ." Another claimed, "The administration is letting the faculty and staff think they are having some input in the process, but in the end they will do as they see fit!" Still another faculty respondent stated, "I do not believe that my, or most other faculty, input is actually used. Much of what the faculty find, believe, and think is ignored, even in the face of data. Administrators have the idea that they and only they know what is good for the institution." Another faculty respondent had a similar reaction claiming, "The administration disregards faculty input at the institutional level. However, we have a lot of say at the departmental level." Limitations This research investigated faculty and academic administrator support for strategic planning activities in the context of postsecondary education reform in of Kentucky. Any generalizations drawn from the data should be tempered by several limiting factors A factor or condition that, either temporarily or permanently, impedes mission accomplishment. Illustrative examples are transportation network deficiencies, lack of in-place facilities, malpositioned forces or materiel, extreme climatic conditions, distance, transit or overflight rights, . First, the regression analysis failed to illuminate il·lu·mi·nate v. il·lu·mi·nat·ed, il·lu·mi·nat·ing, il·lu·mi·nates v.tr. 1. To provide or brighten with light. 2. To decorate or hang with lights. 3. a clear explanation of the differences in group scores as presented in Tables 1 and 2. Two important questions regarding support for strategic planning remain unanswered: Why did so few factors predict the overall measure of support for strategic planning? Why were the significant predictors different at two-year colleges and four-year colleges and universities? Second, the location of the state reform efforts as well as the participants in this study was Kentucky. Public institutions across the country are subject to varying levels of accountability from their state. While many states have implemented higher education reform initiatives, state policy goals, available resources, expected outcomes, and political climate are unique from one state to another. Results from this study relate specifically to the reform climate in Kentucky. Generalizations drawn from the data in this study must consider the possible uniqueness of this environment. Third, this research investigated academic administrators as a participant group. However, strategic planning efforts also incorporate research, capital construction, physical facilities, student services, information technology, and a host of other university functions. Administrators in these contiguous Adjacent or touching. Contrast with fragmentation. See contiguous file. fields also possess attitudes regarding support for strategic planning that may differ considerably from those of academic administrators. The research literature on strategic planning has produced few definitive results regarding either the nature of support for this management strategy or its contributions to strategic change. Yet, the literature seems quite clear on the point that almost every institution engages in strategic planning to some extent and with varied degrees of effectiveness. It also appears that the environmental factors giving rise to the need for strategic planning will not dissipate dis·si·pate v. dis·si·pat·ed, dis·si·pat·ing, dis·si·pates v.tr. 1. To drive away; disperse. 2. any time soon. Thus, the cultivation of both faculty and administrative support for strategic planning in higher education will likely be an important challenge for some time to come. The data from this study provide some guidance for institutional efforts to enhance support for their strategic activities. Appendix: Items Within Indices Included in the Research Instrument Criterion Variable: Support for Strategic Planning 1. Strategic planning plays an important role in improving my institution. 2. Efforts to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to my institution are worthwhile. 3. Strategic planning is a fad that will likely be replaced by another area of emphasis. 4. Faculty members at my institution play an important role in strategic planning. 5. Resources dedicated to strategic planning activities are investments in the long-term Long-term Three or more years. In the context of accounting, more than 1 year. long-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss in the value of a security that has been held over a specific length of time. Compare short-term. health of my institution. 6. Strategic planning processes do little to help our institution fulfill ful·fill also ful·fil tr.v. ful·filled, ful·fill·ing, ful·fills also ful·fils 1. To bring into actuality; effect: fulfilled their promises. 2. its mission. 7. Strategic planning should be a top priority of the institution. 8. The benefits of the strategic planning process are clearly not worth the resources we invest in the process. Predictor Variable: Depth of Implementation 1. My institution has a systematic process of strategic planning. 2. Strategic planning is a continual process at my institution. 3. Faculty, staff, and administrators are actively involved in the strategic planning process. 4. Our strategic planning process has been developed to "fit" the institution. 5. Procedures for assessing goal attainment are clearly stated at my institution. 6. The institutional mission is central to the strategic planning process. 7. Specific changes at my institution have occurred through systematic evaluation of our strategic planning results. 8. All areas of my institution evaluate strategic planning objectives. 9. My institution dedicates sufficient resources to strategic planning activities. 10. Departmental strategic planning goals are generally known by individuals in the departments. 11. Institutional research (data collection and analysis) is an integral part of my institution's strategic planning process. 12. Administrative responsibility administrative responsibility Any task or duty related to managing an institution; non-Pt management-related responsibilities of physicians include chart review, participation in the tumor board or tissue committee, etc. Cf Clinical responsibility. for institutional research has been assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. at my institution. 13. My institution is committed to allocating resources to remedy areas of weakness found through the strategic planning process. Predictor Variable: Level of Involvement 1. I have actively participated in a review of my institution's mission statement. 2. I have participated in defining specific goals for my department. 3. I have helped formulate formulate /for·mu·late/ (for´mu-lat) 1. to state in the form of a formula. 2. to prepare in accordance with a prescribed or specified method. outcome measures to measure progress toward departmental goals. 4. I am not familiar with the strategic plan for my department. 5. I have engaged in specific planning exercises to aid in my institution's strategic planning activities. 6. I am (or have been) involved in strategic planning activities at my institution. 7. I use the results of strategic planning activities to evaluate the distribution of resources. 8. I have evaluated and offered advice about the strategic plan at my university. Predictor Variable: Type of Institutional Decision Making 1. Day-to-day decisions made by institutional decision makers are consistent with long-range goals and objectives. 2. The administration communicates with faculty on issues affecting the institution. 3. Faculty participate in decisions that directly impact their jobs. 4. Decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the organization. 5. Individual faculty members can influence institutional decisions frequently. 6. The campus community has an opportunity to voice concerns on important institutional issues prior to a decision being made. 7. Faculty governance (i.e., Faculty Senate) can influence institutional decisions. Predictor Variable: Type of Planning Model Implemented 1. Faculty have opportunities to assist in establishing institutional goals and objectives and strategies to achieve them. 2. The vision of my institution is clearly defined. 3. Goals of the administration are consistent with goals of the faculty. 4. The administration considers faculty participation in institutional planning important. 5. Responsibility as a faculty member includes participation in institutional-wide planning. 6. Administrators impose institutional goals upon individual faculty without consultation. 7. My institution has a formal process for gathering and sharing internal and external data with the faculty. 8. Faculty are/were involved in developing the institutional strategic plan. 9. Responsibility as a faculty member includes participation in departmental planning. 10. Faculty are encouraged to participate in the long-range planning process of the institution. 11. The long-range planning process of the institution is understood by faculty. 12. Administrators encourage faculty to participate in the planning process of the institution. Predictor Variable: Level of Support for State Reform Initiatives 1. "House Bill 1" or the Postsecondary Education Reform legislation enacted in 1997 is beneficial to Kentucky's public institutions. 2. Governance authority should reside at the intuitional in·tu·i·tion n. 1. a. The act or faculty of knowing or sensing without the use of rational processes; immediate cognition. See Synonyms at reason. b. Knowledge gained by the use of this faculty; a perceptive insight. level, not the state or its appointed governing board Noun 1. governing board - a board that manages the affairs of an institution board - a committee having supervisory powers; "the board has seven members" . 3. Institutional strategic plans should incorporate the initiatives included in the state reform effort. 4. State legislators and governing boards have an obligation to hold institutions accountable for their use of state resources. 5. The state should have a role in developing strategic planning initiatives for our institution. 6. I support the Commonwealth's postsecondary reform initiatives and feel it will benefit both my institution and the Commonwealth of Kentucky. 7. As a public institution, we have an obligation to ensure our strategic activities are congruent con·gru·ent adj. 1. Corresponding; congruous. 2. Mathematics a. Coinciding exactly when superimposed: congruent triangles. b. with state initiatives.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Faculty and Administrators at Two- and
Four-Year Institutions
Two-Year Four-Year
Variables Faculty Faculty
Respondents Respondents
(N = 165) (N = 563)
1. Support Mean = 3.85 Mean = 3.84
for Strategic Min. = 1.71 Min. = 1.00
Planning Max. = 5.00 Max. = 5.00
SD = .87 SD = .88
2. Level of Mean = 3.93 Mean = 3.33
Involvement Min. = 1.50 Min. = 1.00
Max. = 5.00 Max. = 5.00
SD = .79 SD = 1.02
3. Depth of Mean = 3.83 Mean = 3.53
Implementation Min. = 1.23 Min. = 1.22
Max. = 5.00 Max. = 5.00
SD = .75 SD = .75
4. Type of Mean = 3.81 Mean = 3.38
Planning Min. = 1.42 Min. = 1.42
Model Max. = 5.00 Max. = 4.92
SD = .81 SD = .79
5. Type of Mean = 3.28 Mean = 3.10
Institutional Min. = 1.00 Min. = 1.00
Decision Max. = 5.00 Max. = 4.86
Making SD = .94 SD = .83
6. Support for Mean = 3.14 Mean = 3.33
State Reform Min. = 1.00 Min. = 1.14
Initiative Max. = 4.86 Max. = 5.00
SD = .74 SD = .67
Two-Year Four-Year
Variables Administrator Administrator
Respondents Respondents
(N = 34) (N = 62)
1. Support Mean = 4.45 Mean = 4.42
for Strategic Min. = 2.86 Min. = 2.43
Planning Max. = 5.00 Max. = 5.00
SD = .60 SD = .69
2. Level of Mean = 4.69 Mean = 4.55
Involvement Min. = 3.78 Min. = 3.22
Max. = 2.00 Max. = 5.00
SD = .58 SD = .46
3. Depth of Mean = 4.21 Mean = 3.96
Implementation Min. = 2.77 Min. = 2.62
Max. = 5.00 Max. = 4.92
SD = .58 SD = .63
4. Type of Mean = 4.23 Mean = 4.02
Planning Min. = 2.33 Min. = 2.33
Model Max. = 4.92 Max. = 5.00
SD = .65 SD = .65
5. Type of Mean = 4.03 Mean = 3.76
Institutional Min. = 1.71 Min. = 2.20
Decision Max. = 5.00 Max. = 5.00
Making SD = .74 SD = .61
6. Support for Mean = 3.63 Mean = 3.84
State Reform Min. = 1.71 Min. = 2.86
Initiative Max. = 4.71 Max. = 4.86
SD = .77 SD = .46
Note. Min. refers to the minimum average of the items on the index.
Max. refers to the maximum average of the items on the index. SD refers
to the standard deviation of scores on the index.
Table 2
T-Test Comparisons of Faculty and Administrators at Two- and Four-Year
Institutions for Dependent and Predictor Variables
Comparison Comparison
of Two and of Two and
Four-Year Four-Year
College College
Faculty Administrators
t df t df
1. Support
for Strategic -0.126 611 -0.176 92
Planning
2. Level of -6.56 *** 641 -1.54 92
Involvement
3. Depth of -4.28 *** 627 -1.89 92
Implementation
4. Type of
Planning -5.74 *** 648 -1.51 92
Model
5. Type of
Institutional -2.19 * 635 -1.96 91
Decision
Making
6. Support for
State Reform 3.01 ** 545 .70 91
Initiative
Comparison Comparison
of Faculty and of Faculty and
Administrators Administrators
at Two-Year at Four-Year
Institutions Institutions
t df t df
1. Support
for Strategic 3.78 *** 170 4.94 *** 533
Planning
2. Level of 5.38 *** 176 9.13 *** 557
Involvement
3. Depth of 2.75 ** 175 4.33 *** 544
Implementation
4. Type of
Planning 2.83 ** 176 6.04 *** 564
Model
5. Type of
Institutional 4.27 *** 171 5.89 *** 555
Decision
Making
6. Support for
State Reform 3.47 *** 164 5.59 *** 472
Initiative
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
Table 3
Regression Analysis Summary
Two-Year College
Respondents
Step Predictor Adjusted [DELTA]
1 Variables [R.sup.2] [R.sup.2] R.sup.2] [DELTA]F
1 Control .540 .525 .540 36.420 **
Variables
2 Respondent .541 .523 .000 .107
Status
3 Interaction .543 .509 .003 .163
Variables
Four-Year College
Respondents
Step Predictor Adjusted [DELTA]
1 Variables [R.sup.2] [R.sup.2] R.sup.2] [DELTA]F
1 Control .395 .388 .395 57.120 **
Variables
2 Respondent .398 .003 .003 2.192
Status
3 Interaction .401 .003 .003 .408
Variables
Note. ** p < .01.
Table 4
Regression Analysis Summary for Predictor Variables
Two-Year College Four-Year College
Respondents Respondents
Variable B SE B [beta] B SE B [beta]
Level of .274 .086 .242 ** .035 .041 .039
Involvement
Depth of -.007 .127 -.006 .415 .076 .355 **
Implementation
Type of Planning .151 .147 .142 .100 .088 .091
Model
Type of Institutional .296 .091 .323 ** .066 .072 .064
Decision Making .272 .062 .249 .290 .055 .219
Support for State
Reform Efforts
Note. ** p < .01.
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It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Free Press. Peterson, M. W., & White, T. H. (1992). Faculty and administrator perceptions of their environments: Different views or different models of organization? Research in Higher Education, 33, 177-205. Rabuzzi, D., Carson, R., & Conklin, J. (2001). Issue brief: Postsecondary education reform in Kentucky. Washington, DC: NGA Noun 1. NGA - a combat support agency that provides geographic intelligence in support of national security National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency Center for Best Practices. Rhoades, G. (2000). Who's doing it right? Strategic activity in public research universities. The Review of Higher Education, 24(1), 41-66. Shirley, R. C. (1988). Strategic planning: An overview. In D. W. Steeples (Ed.), Successful strategic planning: Case studies (pp. 5-14). New Directions for Higher Education, no. 64. 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Typically the comprehensive plan will look at estimated growth within a specific time period, for example, 20 years. on financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 22, 516-526. John F. Welsh is professor of higher education at the University of Louisville See also
1. ^ [1] 2. ^ [2] URL accessed on June 8 2006 3. , john.welsh@louisville.edu William J. Nunez is director of Planning and Research at the University of Nebraska--Lincoln. wnunez2@unlnotes.unl.edu Joseph Petrosko is professor of education and chair of the Department of Leadership, Foundations, and Human Resource Education at the University of Louisville. JMPETR01@gwise.louisville.edu |
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