Fables in the classroom: motivating middle school writers with learning disabilities.

Abstract

This article presents the use of fable writing as a vehicle for teaching the recursive and overlapping stages of the writing process to students with learning disabilities in an inclusion classroom. Today, educators are electing to introduce various genre of cultural literature into the literacy curriculum for students with learning disabilities. Often described as passive learners, these students with special needs can excel in an interactive setting that provides collaboration with peers. The findings from this instructional study support the use of fables for teaching writing to eighth grade students with and without learning disabilities.

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Historical Perspective

The image of a carefree grasshopper dancing and singing in the warmth of the summer sun creates a visual contrast with that of a small ant who is toiling diligently to harvest grain for the harsh winter ahead. Soon, summer turns to winter and the ant reminds us of the moral of this Aesop fable, "Plan ahead. It is best to prepare for days of necessity." Bohning (1996) pointed out that fables are an endless treasure that began centuries ago as part of oral tradition and those they are found throughout the world (p. 16). Fables are an instructional resource that contain the elements of story structure and can be used to "illustrate the meaning of key concepts" in developing critical literacy (Jarolimek, 1991, p. 5). According to Gunning (2000), "one of the most fundamental ways in which reading enhances writing is by providing a model of form" (p. 446). Similarly, research with middle school students revealed a marked increase in quantity and quality of attempts to use dialogue in original compositions and revealed that less confident students especially benefited from working in pairs during the [initial] retelling and composing [stages of the writing] process (Abrahamson & Sprouse, 1995; Cudd, 1993).

Fables are defined as "a brief fictitious story that ends with a moral" (Palmer, Hafner & Sharp, 1994, p. 264). Characteristically, fables are written in the form of short stories or paragraphs; fables that are borrowed or handed down from generation to generation can be viewed loosely as short folk-tales with a moral. By reading short stories such as fables developing authors--specifically those with learning disabilities--can be taught how to model this genre in relatively short, yet purposeful, lessons. Researchers have concluded that reading and writing are complimentary processes. For example, Palmer, Hafner and Sharp (1994) submitted that meaningful writing is constructed through reading, and conversely, writers construct meaningful readings. The purpose of this study was to assess the potential benefits of using the fable as a model for writing instruction in an eighth-grade inclusion classroom for language arts. Given that students with specific learning disabilities employ a less sophisticated approach to composing than normally achieving students--one that minimizes the role of planning (Harris & Graham, 1996), fable instruction, prewriting activities, large group instruction and small collaborative groups were combined so that the potential benefits to students with special needs could be evaluated.

Setting and Delivery Model

The Florida State University School (FSUS) is a K-12 public school affiliated with The Florida State University College of Education, Tallahassee, Florida. The school serves as a demonstration site for exemplary instructional models and as a research school to refine teaching techniques, develop new and innovative instructional materials, and evaluate these programs and models. The school population is determined by computer selection to represent the demographics of the state of Florida in terms of gender, ethnicity, academic ability, and socioeconomic status.

The FSUS middle school program (grades 6-8) is based on the premise that students in the middle grades need an educational program that emphasizes not only cognitive but social development. Students with special academic needs are supported with special education services each week through a collaborative-consultation delivery model. The collaborative-consultative teaching model is a more recent structure for supporting all students in their general education classes. In the areas of reading and writing, special support typically consists of supplemental small group instruction in the use of visual organization strategies (e.g., story frames, semantic maps, etc.) to aid in reading comprehension and growth as writers. The following section is a description of a study of how whole-class strategy instruction was used to engage students with special academic needs in the process of writing fables.

Participants

Participants in the study included 28 eighth-grade students (14 males and 14 females) between 12 and 14 years of age. All of the students were enrolled in an eighth grade language arts class that met 50 minutes a day each week. Four of the students (three males and one female) were diagnosed with specific learning disabilities (SLD) in the areas of reading, writing or both. The students with SLD were being supported in general education classes through a collaborative consultation delivery model. At the time of the study, the class had received instruction in prewriting strategies, how to develop dialogue, and writing short narrative compositions.

Teacher Preparation and Materials

Using a delivery system called team-teaching, two teachers collaborated to facilitate a two-day lesson in writing fables. One was a regular education teacher with a background in English and with two years of experience planning English instruction in an inclusion classroom. The other teacher was a special education teacher whose expertise was in designing instructional strategies to assist students with learning disabilities in an inclusive environment. Whenever possible, both professionals were simultaneously present in the classroom. The two-day timeline was chosen to supplement previous instruction in prewriting strategies within the regular classroom. Fables were chosen as the genre for this instruction because the familiar nature and other general characteristics of fables were ideal for actively engaging all students in process-based writing. A graphic organizer (story pyramid) was selected to assist students in building a foundation for writing fables. The teachers also collaborated to determine the roles they would play in the prewriting and first-draft phases of the fable writing process.

Lesson Design

A lesson entitled "Write Your Own Fables" was designed for and presented to the eighth-grade language arts class at FSUS. The lesson was delivered in two, 50-minute assignments during two consecutive school days. Instructional activities included the following: (a) interactive readings from literature, including fables and folklore; (b) collaborative group prewriting assignments; (c) collaborative group written responses to the literature; and (d) group compositions of fables.

The selected literature included retellings of fables originally written by Aesop, folklore from Africa, and textbook instruction describing the characteristics of fables. These selections were made because they represent a variety of text structures using the fable story elements of animal characters and morals. Characters are typically depicted as animals because they are not gender or age specific--everyone can identify with animals and can understand the moral of the story through their experiences. Also, they were organized in short, explicit sequences to provide the students with background knowledge about fables. The objectives were to increase student understanding of fables, to provide shared experiences with this genre, and to demonstrate how to use this genre as a medium for process-based writing.

Day One--Prewriting

Students were provided with copies of the selected Aesop fables and African folklore. In preparation for writing their own fables, students examined the literature and wrote down their personal predictions based upon the title, cover illustrations, and background knowledge of fables. Students were then asked to volunteer to read aloud several interactive fable readings, comment on the moral ending of each fable, and relate each moral to their personal life experiences. After generating these thoughts, students were directed to write them down. Next, the students were asked to create their own fables. As part of the scaffolding process teachers provided not only clear explanations but also encouraged questions from these developing writers.

Next, each student was given a number between one and four, and asked to separate into seven groups of four based upon these numbers. The students with disabilities were intentionally given numbers that would place them into separate groups (Scruggs & Richter, 1985). Each group was given the following instructions: (a) generate your own moral for purposes of writing an original fable, (b) use the fable to teach this moral, and (c) write about ways in which your fable added to or changed your understanding of morals and the process of writing. In addition, the students were encouraged to collaborate and complete a prewriting graphic pyramid for the purpose of organizing the group's thoughts into a story format. Palmer, Hafner and Sharp (1994) recommended "integrated instruction among the language processes of listening, speaking, reading, and writing so that students are actively involved in making and conveying meaning in natural ways" (p. 1).

Teachers directed each group to consider that their prewriting should contain the common characteristics of fables. During this exploration stage, the students were to de-emphasize the mechanics of writing. The teachers stressed the importance of initially generating thoughts for meaning (content emphasis) and then later repairing mechanical errors. The final requirement for the completion of this prewriting activity was for each group to use a prewriting pyramid to generate discussion and prepare them for composing of their fable. In some instances, a group was observed drawing a picture to help students synthesize thoughts and ideas. The activity provided students with an array of process-based language opportunities to aid in the creation of their own group fable.

Day Two--Generating a First-Draft

On the second day of instruction, the teachers led the class in a retelling of the same fables and folktales. The purpose of the retelling activity was to demonstrate how to use the story structure in fables to support recall and then use this schema for generating a new fable. Through discussion, the students determined the key ideas or events that they wanted to capture from each retelling for their own group-written fable. This writing session was more detailed and extensive than that of the previous day. Teachers read the students' prewriting pyramids aloud to the class to solicit feedback from peers about written organization and synthesis of ideas. Groups were instructed to write these thoughts from the organizational pyramid into a narrative first-draft. Active learning, hands-on tasks are effective methods for engaging otherwise inactive students. This "active learning" task also served to solidify their understanding of the overlapping and recursive nature of process-based writing.

Students with learning disabilities often appear to be "inactive learners" (Torgesen, Wagner & Rashotte, 1994) and may not acquire strategies or knowledge at a rate consistent with that of their non-disabled peers. For example, because they produce so little written work, students with learning disabilities have substantially more problems with writing than their normally achieving peers (Harris & Graham, 1996). They may appear disorganized and lack an understanding of what to do or how to proceed with academic tasks or assignments.

For this reason, the four students with learning disabilities were given a specific role as scribes within their group when composing the first-draft. This teacher-initiated appointment provided them with an active role in the writing process. Specifically, it enabled historically passive learners to actively converse and collaborate with their peers for a common goal within the context of writing a draft for a fable. Overall, the simplicity of the structure of fables, the support of the visual prewriting organizer, and the active involvement as scribes for their respective cooperative groups provided each of these students with an inclusive alternative for engagement in process-based writing. Thus, rather than provide small-group, supplemental instruction, the instructors were able to address their needs within the language arts class. The first-drafts were collected and copies were made for each group member. Students were then instructed to use these first-drafts as examples for further compositions throughout the course.

Results and Discussion

In keeping with the inquisitive nature of this study, the outcomes are addressed by describing a number of observations that emerged in the course of this lesson. The following set of questions guided the observations:

* Do all students recognize the organizational patterns that are characteristic to the literature genre of fables? What can educators do to ensure that they do?

* Does the organizational structure that is characteristic of fables assist students in understanding the recursive stages of the writing process? Do students with learning disabilities develop this same understanding? Why or why not?

* What implications does this understanding have on teaching writing to students with learning disabilities in inclusive classroom settings?

In general, most students who have been diagnosed with specific learning disabilities have significant difficulty with reading, written expression, and/or language. The writing of students with learning disabilities is less polished, expansive, coherent, and effective than that of their peers. Further, these students often lack important knowledge of the writing process, experience difficulties generating ideas and selecting topics, and often lack strategies for organization of text, engaging in little to no revision (Graham, Harris, MacArthur & Schwartz, 1991; Harris & Graham, 1996). One might hypothesize that these students may not have developed the same schematic awareness of various literature genres as their normal language peers. Thus, their ability to organize written compositions may be significantly below that of their peers.

We were particularly interested in how students with learning disabilities drew generalizations and understood that literature can assist in learning the writing process. The purpose of the initial activity of reading fables and folktales was to provide additional background knowledge for all students. With no exceptions, the students with learning disabilities were able to understand the organization of the text with confidence. The special education teacher verified this understanding by individually asking each student with learning disabilities if s/he could explain the organization of a selected fable. Throughout the discussion, all students demonstrated a general grasp of the stages of the writing process. The clearest evidence of this was through examination of each group's prewriting and narrative compositions. This prewriting activity provided students with learning disabilities the opportunity to engage in peer-assisted learning and modeling. As scribes for their groups, students with special needs were observed actively participating in determining which key ideas or events were used for the prewriting process. This activity provided an active role for students who (a) historically had been observed to be passive and quiet while working with peers, and (b) when writing in class, had produced very little work.

Given "that the prewriting stage may constitute 85% of the composing/writing process" (Palmer, Hafner & Sharp, 1994, p. 59), this lesson demonstrated that regular education teachers, especially those in inclusion classrooms, should and can incorporate prewriting techniques and strategies designed to stimulate and organize writing topics. Reading examples of previous works, providing for group discussion, using graphic organizers, such as pyramids or story maps, and displaying student work for peer feedback are some of the learning strategies that were incorporated into this literacy lesson. These methods proved useful as guidelines in planning meaningful writing instruction for students with specific learning disabilities. Observations made during the present study suggest that providing direct instruction, guided group practice, and teaching the recursive and overlapping stages of writing in the inclusion classroom can mediate process-based writing instruction for students with reading and writing disabilities.

Conclusions and Implications

Many students who have difficulty understanding the various components of the writing process often have poor reading and writing skills. For these students, writing is often the most challenging and frustrating academic task. Their writing difficulties go beyond mechanical problems such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar to higher-order cognitive and meta-cognitive problems (Houck & Billingsley, 1989). Often, this is due to a lack of knowledge of the writing process and what constitutes good writing (Graham, Schwartz & MacArthur, 1993). This lesson demonstrated clearly that in using fables as models for written composition, students with learning disabilities were engaged actively in the writing task and were more socially interactive with their peers than with other writing activities. As presented in this study, fables serving as models for written composition can be an effective vehicle for today's educator to facilitate the development of critical literacy for students with learning disabilities in the inclusive classroom. Throughout this learning experience, students with learning disabilities were actively engaged in all stages of the writing process within the regular classroom. As educators continue to design instruction that is highly motivational for today's learners, the success of this study can serve as a springboard for planning and implementing meaningful literacy programs in inclusive settings. With an emphasis on active engagement, these middle school students increasingly took ownership for expanding their knowledge of fables as they embraced the concept of authorship.

References

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Bohning, G. (1996, March). Aesop's fables: Centuries of timeless advice. The Florida Reading Quarterly, 32 (3), 17-21.

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Palmer is a Professor of Reading and Language Arts in the Department of Educational Theory and Practice. Nicholas is a doctoral candidate in the Special Education Program. Rancourt is a recent graduate with her Ph.D. in Reading and Language Arts from the Department of Educational Theory and Practice. Musumeci-Renwick is a doctoral student in the Reading and Language Arts Program.