FAMILIES without borders - I.

International adoption has grown rapidly over the past decade. For a variety of reasons - related both to the growing interest in adopting children from other countries by families in so-called "receiving" countries and to socioeconomic and cultural factors in "sending countries"-the number of children adopted internationally has doubled since 1992. The growth in international adoption has been tied to its demographics. As a rule, though there are exceptions, the children to be adopted reside in less developed countries, while the adults seeking to adopt are citizens of developed nations. Economic conditions, which place increased pressure on families and their Governments, have played a significant role in the international adoptions of children from Latin America, Asia and most recently Eastern Europe and Russia. Higher levels of infertility and the steady decline in the number of domestic infants available for adoption have played a role in the increased interest in international adoption on the part of adults in the United States and Europe.

International adoption has been the subject of intense debate with regard to both its implications for children and families and its impact on the international community of nations.

The lack of clearly defined and regulated procedures to deal with the growing demand for international adoption has led. to questions about the extent to which it can and does promote positive outcomes for children and international understanding. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Cooperation in Respect to Intercountry Adoption (He Convention) have attempted to resolve many of the issues by creating standards for international adoption. The ultimate effect of these efforts in fostering positive relationships among nations remains to be seen.

International adoption poses challenges to international understanding because it is intertwined with national interests of countries where children reside - emigration, protection of the country's human resources, and the country's image in relation to its ability to care for its citizens. From a national perspective, international adoption may be viewed negatively. It may be seen as a demographic threat as children leave the country; it may be perceived as another manifestation of exploitation of poorer nations by more affluent ones; there may be a sense that national pride is injured by what appears to be a form of "international charity".

And there may be deep ethical concerns, particularly when international adoption involves large sums of money that suggest "baby buying". Perhaps no aspect of international adoption has worked against international understanding as much as reports of abduction, trafficking and the sale of infants by unscrupulous practitioners in both countries of origin and "receiving" countries. These reports, irrespective of the extent to which they accurately represent the broader practice of international adoption, signal the abuses that are possible in an unregulated environment. They raise the specter that birth parents may be misled, bribed or coerced into placing their children for adoption and that children leave their countries, their cultures and their birth families as a result of highly unprincipled business dealings. They may also suggest that as the number of young children available for adoption in more developed countries has declined, children in other countries have become commodities sought by relatively affluent adults.

The less publicized side of international adoption is that characterized by mutual efforts on the part of countries where children reside and countries where adults, recognizing that many children do not have families, are eager to offer them love, permanency and security. This side of international adoption is grounded on the belief that the well-being of children is a global responsibility and not one defined by national boundaries. International adoption, in world view, serves as a viable connector between countries as they jointly work to meet the needs of children who do not have families. It recognizes that families from other countries can serve as important resources for children facing economic pressures that make it difficult for families to step forward to adopt and in countries where culturally adoption is not favoured as an alternative for children without families. For countries that have struggled to develop the necessary protections and assistance for children and families as outlined in the CRC, international adoption provides an alternative for homeless and abandoned children for whom family resources are not domestically available. If adoption is to provide a basis for enhanced international understanding, it appears necessary, at the outset, to clearly define international adoption as a service for children. This concept of international adoption finds strong support in the CRC, which states in its Preamble, "[T]he child, for the full and harmonious development of his or her personality, should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding."

Understanding among nations also is most likely to be promoted by subjecting international adoption to high standards of ethical practice that acknowledge and respect the interests of children, their birth families, their adoptive families and their countries. The CRC provides that countries "recognize that inter-country adoption may be considered as an alternative means of the child's care, if the child cannot be placed in a foster or an adoptive family or cannot in any suitable manner be cared for in the child's country of origin" and requires, when international adoption is appropriate, that countries ensure that appropriate safeguards are in place, including protections against improper financial gain. Although it offers a somewhat different philosophy from the CRC regarding the role of intercountry adoption, the Hague Convention outlines specific standards for international adoption practice and a structure for ensuring that ethical standards of practice are enforced.

The extent to which adoption can promote international understanding will depend in large part on the level of mutual respect that characterizes the relationships between countries where children reside and those countries from which adults who seek to adopt generally come. It will also depend on the extent to which there is confidence that international adoption is ethically practised and is grounded on a recognition of the interests of children, including their cultural and national connections.

International understanding may find support in the growing body of research that reflects generally positive outcomes for children who are adopted internationally and the development of strong parent preparation and post-adoption services which promote success in adoptions. Nonetheless, the specter of abuse and exploitation remains and must be addressed. Through a commitment to the principles of the CRC and to a clearly articulated body of standards practice, the twin goals of promoting the well-being of children and enhancing understanding among the nations of the world are more likely to be achieved.