Eye to the sky: understanding the danger of thunderstorms and lightning.

Recreation and play in the outdoors have always been an integral part of life. Unfortunately, being outdoors means being at the mercy of the weather and regional climate. As more and more people begin to enjoy the emerging realm of outdoor sports, it is becoming increasingly important for outdoor recreation providers and participants to understand weather conditions and the dangers associated with them; thunderstorms and lightning are two primary concerns. Consider these general facts regarding thunderstorms and lightning.

Thunderstorms

* Nearly 2,000 thunderstorms are in progress on the Earth's surface at any given time.

* About 45,000 thunderstorms occur daily, 16 million annually.

* About 100,000 thunderstorms occur in the United States annually.

* An average thunderstorm has the energy of 10 atomic bombs and about 100 times the kinetic energy of a tornado.

Lightning

* Lightning strikes the Earth's surface 100 times each second.

* Millions of lightning discharges occur each year in the United States alone.

* A lightning bolt can generate temperatures of up to 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit.

The frequency of occurrence is astounding, and may even seem overwhelming. However, as with most weather and associated activity, there is a general pattern in both time and location. Following is a general overview of thunderstorm occurrences.

* 70-100 days per year in the southeastern Gulf states.

* 60 days per year in the front range of the Rocky Mountains from eastern Colorado southward across eastern New Mexico

* 30-50 days per year for the remainder of the country, with the West Coast having the least number of thunderstorm days per year.

How They Happen

Thunderstorms are formed when warm, moist air rises into cold air, resulting in cumulus and cumulonimbus cloud forms. Ice crystals form as the warm air condenses. Electrical fields are created as the crystals move around inside the cloud. As this process continues, positively charged particles gather at the top of the cloud and negatively charged particles gather at the bottom. This causes an increase in energy which continues until a threshold is reached. Passing the threshold results in an electrical discharge, or lightning, which can come in four different types: cloud-to-cloud, cloud-to-ground, ground-to-cloud, and intra-cloud. The most common form of electrical discharge is the cloud-to-ground, which is typically the type that causes injuries and death.

Late spring and summer--May through August--are crucial because these months are typically the primary season for outdoor recreation-related programming. Organizations, such as summer camps, city/county recreation departments and other trip and travel providers should pay special attention to weather patterns during their planning processes.

Lightning-Related Injuries

According to the National Weather Service, lightning deaths lead all other categories of weather-related fatalities. Researchers have found that nearly two-thirds of all lightning deaths occurred in open fields, near or under trees or were water related. Eighty percent of these fatalities occurred between the hours of 10 a.m. and 7 p.m. U.S. statistics for the period of 1959-1987 listed 2,801 deaths and 7,356 injuries as a result of lightning, averaging 100 deaths and 250 injuries per year.

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

In addition, they found that more than four of five casualties are male; most likely because more males work and play outdoors. Recently; however, the number of lightning deaths has shown a general decreasing trend. This trend may be a result of three factors: 1. less people being active in the outdoors during times of threatening weather, 2. better awareness and education of the proper safety measures and dangers of lightning and 3. advanced medical treatment.

Types of Contact

It is important to note that lightning has the ability to strike several miles from the parent cloud and that 60% of lightning strikes stay within the cloud or discharge cloud-to-cloud. There are four ways in which a person can come into contact with lightning:

1. Direct Hit -- A direct hit is the most serious. It occurs when electric current flows through the victim and is intensified by metal objects on or held by the victim (metal backpack frames, climbing equipment, cables, bicycles, metal baseball bats, etc.)

2. Flashover -- This type of contact occurs when an electrical current flashes over the outside of the body. It creates less energy flow than a direct hit, but clothing may be exploded off the body. The current is enhanced by wet clothing and moisture. Those who experience a flashover have a 70-80% survival rate.

3. Side Flash -- Contact is known as side flash when electric current travels from a primary conductor, such as a building, tree or another person. A portion of the current travels through the air and strikes the nearby victim.

4. Ground Current -- A current can be generated when lightning strikes the ground close to a person. A charge radiates out from the strike site along the ground to whichever foot is touching the ground closer to the point of the lightning strike. Ground currents are the most common way a person can be "struck." They are often associated with multiple victims. The danger of injury depends on where the current enters and exits the body.

Recently, much research has been done on how lightning enters and travels through the human body. Findings showed that lightning enters through the body's orifices and then flows along blood vessels and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) pathways. The brainstem, which controls the respiratory and cardiac systems, is most affected because the CSF pathway narrows near it. Researchers explain, "If the heart stops, it will restart itself because it has some autonomous control. But the lungs are governed wholly by the brainstem and must be artificially supported if they fail. Otherwise the victim suffocates."

Roughly 70% of strike victims survive with minimal effects. These facts support the idea that most victims of lightning strikes die from respiratory failure, emphasizing the need for immediate first aid, most commonly mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Types of Injuries

Lightning strikes--if not fatal--can cause a variety of injuries.

1. Cardiopulmionary Injuries -- This type of injury is fairly common, with cardiac arrest being the primary cause of death. Respiratory arrest is also visible due to the shutdown of the muscles used for breathing. A victim with this type of injury is unlikely to die, unless cardiac arrest occurs immediately after.

2. Neurological Damage -- This injury is also common with lightning strikes. Of those struck, one-half are knocked unconscious and two-thirds will experience temporary lower extremity paralysis. Seizures may result from damage to the nervous system. Confusion and amnesia are also characteristic of nerve damage.

3. Burns -- Burns are a frequent result of lightning strikes, although they tend to be superficial. They are considered a diagnostic sign of lightning injury and are described as "spidery," "branching" and "feathery." Entry and exit wounds are considered rare, as are skin and deep muscle injury.

4. Blunt Injury -- This type of injury can occur when victims are thrown from the strike site. Head injuries, fractures, dislocations, or chest and abdomen trauma can all result from lightning strikes.

5. Vascular Problems -- Lightning strikes cause vasoconstriction of peripheral blood vessels, which result in the immediate cooling of the extremities. The skin also takes on a molted appearance. The pulse may be decreased or absent.

6. Ear and Eye Problems -- One-half of all lightning strike victims exhibit tympanic membrane rupture of the inner ear. Cerebrospinal fluid may be visible in the ear canal. Changes in vision, including vision loss and delayed cataract formation, occur in over half of the victims of lightning strikes.

Ramifications for Outdoor Programming

The dangers associated with thunderstorms and lightning can not be totally avoided, but the degree and number of injuries and deaths can be lessened with proper education of both recreation staff and participants. A working knowledge of thunderstorms and lightning is useful and can help to raise awareness and promote safety.

Staff Training

There are varying levels of staff training. The most basic level should include understanding as to why, how and when thunderstorms and lightning occur as well as general guidelines for all activities and evacuation procedures. These general guidelines, as stated by the World Meteorological Organization are shown in Figure 3.

FIGURE 2. LIGHTNING-RELATED DEATHS BY SITUATION

Open fields, including ball parks   28%

Under trees                         17%

On or near water                    13%

On or near tractors                  6%

On golf courses                      4%

Talking on Telephones                1%

Other places or situations          31%

FIGURE 3. GUIDELINES FOR ACTIVITIES AND EVACUATION PROCEDURES

1.   Stay away from tall objects, particu-
     larly individual trees in the open.

2.   Crouch or sit in the lowest spot
     possible.

3.   Seek shelter in large buildings or
     inside motor vehicles.

4.   Stay away from open vehicles,
     including bicycles and motorcycles.

5.   Get out of the water or off small
     boats.

6.   Drop all metal objects, such as golf
     clubs and fishing gear.

Some experts also include the termination of all outdoor activities in the list of general guidelines, and stress the importance of the Lightning Safe Position (LSP) when caught in thunderstorm and lightning conditions. The LSP can be described as "squatting or crouching with the knees drawn up and both feet together, preferably on dry insulating material, with hands off the ground." The final element of basic-level training should be first aid and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) skills. If these measures are taken quickly, the chances of survival are very high.

Most recreation staff dealing with outdoor activities should be trained beyond basic first aid. In the realm of outdoor programming, the four most crucial areas for education and training are rock-climbing, water-based activities, backpacking, and ropes courses. Instructors and leaders in these types of programs should be trained in advanced first aid, Wilderness First Responder (WFR) or Wilderness Emergency Medical Technician (W-EMT).

Advanced first aid training is critical for instructors who lead outdoor adventure activities. In most cases participants are more than two hours from advanced medical assistance and life support, and must have the skills necessary to maintain a victim until emergency officials can be reached. The first hour after an accident or injury is known as "the golden hour." Proper treatment during this period is crucial and is usually the difference between life and death with a serious injury.

Participant Training

Instructors should make participants aware of lightning dangers associated with the activities in which they partake. Depending on the activity, participants should also run through practice drills and first aid training. This type of education provides a safeguard in the event that the instructor or leader happens to be the victim of a lightning strike.

Climatology and Recreation

According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), daily weather observations made by various services are the "primary means for determining the general suitability of weather and climate of a locale to support sporting events and recreational activities." There is a vast amount of data on weather and climate as it relates to sports and other outdoor activities. The WMO says that, "The most crucial weather factor for athletes and spectators alike is severe weather, such as tropical cyclones and tornadoes. However, lightning, hail and high winds associated with severe thunderstorms can seriously disrupt almost any sports event."

This climatological information is available and utilized by many organizations and agencies sponsoring large outdoor events, as well as small groups and individuals preparing to venture into the outdoors to participate in adventure activities. Any organization or business, regardless of size, has the ability to gather usable information regarding the weather and climate in its region. This information can then be used to train and educate staff and clients, hopefully reducing the risk of injury or death.

Forecasts and Recreation

Forecasts for outdoor recreation programming range from complex, historically based to simple, current local conditions. According to WMO, one- to five-day forecasts are vitally important because they give organizers and participants the necessary information to consider postponement or cancellation of an activity. These forecasts can save money, time and help to reduce the exposure of both staff and participants to the risks associated with severe weather. Forecasts also aid those involved with outdoor programming in terms of the type of clothing and equipment to use, as well as determining the best approach to training and other factors which vary with changing weather conditions.

All types of weather affect outdoor recreation activities. The effects may be as simple as cancellation or as serious as a major accident. Severe weather--specifically thunderstorms and lightning--plays a major role in outdoor recreation programming. These two events of nature are powerful, and can cause severe damage, injury and death. It is important as both professionals and participants to know and understand the most fundamental information about them.