Explicating an ecological approach to the career development of women.

In this response, the author highlights the contributions of E. P. Cook, M. J. Heppner, and K. M. O'Brien's (2002) ecological approach to women's career development and reviews the ways that the case studies in this special section illustrate that model. Although this model may enrich and improve career theories and counseling, the author urges caution in assuming that the emphases of an ecological model apply to all women. The concept of individual differences within, as well as between, the genders must remain paramount in career theory and counseling approaches. The author urges further attention to research and counseling interventions that help explicate the utility of the ecological model.

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Cook, Heppner, and O'Brien's (2002) article "Career Development of Women of Color and White Women: Assumptions, Conceptualization, and Interventions From an Ecological Perspective" is based on the premise that much of the theory and research in the career counseling literature is insufficient to adequately assist large numbers of women because the theory and research are based on fundamental assumptions that do not describe the lives of many women--both women of color and White women. In a nutshell, much of career theory and technique is based on the following assumptions: (a) that work is the most important aspect of people's lives; (b) that career decisions can and should be based on a rational matching of the individual's traits and attributes to the characteristics of occupations; (c) that career development should progress along a rational path showing continued upward movement toward greater responsibility, job complexity, and, it goes without saying, rank and financial rewards; and (d) that talent and hard work will be rewarded. It is a model based on the values of individualism and autonomy.

Cook et al. (2002), suggested, in contrast, that for many women and for cultures other than White western European, the family/group/collective may be more important than has been previously factored into people's reasons for working and their decisions about what work to pursue. For many women, meeting and balancing the demands of family and work are the most salient, and often the most stressful, aspects of at least part of adult life. Career development may not be linear and progressive, as pointed out in the landmark work of Super (1957), Harmon (1967), Wolfson (1976), and Betz (1984) on the variety of career patterns found among women. Linearity and progressive advancement may be more easily disrupted in the career paths of women versus men by commitments to family and by environmental/structural barriers (see also Fitzgerald & Betz's, 1994, extensive discussion of such barriers as a function of gender, race, social class, and sexual orientation).

Cook et al. (2002), accordingly, suggested incorporation of what they term an ecological perspective in career counseling: "A person's behavior is, therefore, a representation of the complex interaction among the myriad factors that constitute her or his life, referred to as the ecosystem" (p. 296). Using ideas from previous writers in ecological psychology (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1977), they suggested that an ecological perspective includes environmental interventions that focus on social support and on individually oriented interventions targeted toward increasing individuals' abilities to deal with environmental barriers to their goals and objectives.

The authors (Cook et al., 2002) provided several examples of how an ecological perspective might be implemented in career counseling--interventions in organizations and schools; changing policies about child care; educational interventions that are designed to reduce sexual harassment; creating supportive networks, including access to mentors and role models; and devising strategies for increasing salaries (which are still less than those of comparably employed men).

In summary, Cook et al. (2002) reminded counselors that their focus must include the environment (ecosystem) of the individual with whom they are working, as well as the individual difference variables emphasized in traditional vocational psychology/career counseling. In essence, in this article the authors reminded counselors that their perspective must be much broader and more complex than they may have assumed or been taught and that their roles include being a cheerleader and social change agent as well as an individual counselor.

To illustrate Cook et al.'s (2002) basic notions, six case studies are provided. Davidson and Huenefeld (2002) provided the case of Eileen (AiLing), who is both Chinese American and lesbian. Eileen faces a serious conflict of values within her identities: It is simply not acceptable to be a lesbian within the Chinese culture. Eileen worries about needing to make a career choice that is appropriate to her race and gender but which does not fit with her own interests. Eileen cannot be "true to her whole self" in either of her environments, and she needs help clarifying and dealing with these conflicts. It is here that I believe a counselor can be uniquely useful. In the counselor's office, Eileen can be true to all the components of her identity because the counselor values her as a lesbian, as a Chinese American, and as a woman struggling to integrate two highly valued, yet conflicting, identities. There are no easy answers for Eileen, but the counselor can help her to articulate the dilemmas she faces and to seek support from her communities.

Flores, Byars, and Torres (2002) described the case of a young Mexican American who is a first-generation U.S. citizen and a potential first-generation college student. As a potential first-generation college student, Laura represents a juxtaposition of marvelous new possibilities for her own life created by the pursuit of higher education along with the fear and self-doubt that accompany striking out in directions previously unknown to her family. Furthermore, it is important to Laura that her decisions involve her family and that they continue to allow her to be true to her Mexican American heritage. Accordingly, Flores et al. offered a number of interventions, including focusing on increasing Laura's self-knowledge as it pertains to careers and lifestyles, providing role models of Mexican American women, and providing Laura and her family extensive information about and opportunities to explore both educational and career directions and colleges and universities. The continuing support of the counselor in demystifying the idea of a college education and in convincing Laura that she can succeed in that milieu will likely be an essential ingredient in enabling this young woman to one day be a college-educated role model for young Mexican American women.

Perrone's (2002) case of Megan illustrates the difficulties faced by women pursuing careers in traditionally male-dominated fields, in this case a career as a chemical engineer in a large corporation. Megan experiences sexual harassment, difficulties obtaining a deserved promotion, and the social isolation often experienced by "token" women or minorities. Perrone detailed several interventions for Megan, focusing on externalizing rather than internalizing the stereotypic, hostile, and harassing behaviors of her male colleagues; seeking support from other women; and offering educational programs on sexual harassment to organizations.

Hook and Ashton's (2002) discussion of Jenna represents the classic case of a gifted girl whose interests in science and careers in science are being either discouraged or ignored (see Betz, 1989, on the "null environment" for explication of why ignoring girls' nontraditional aspirations may be at least as fatal to those aspirations as is outright discouragement). Jenna's academic self-confidence is being slowly, but steadily, eroded by a combination of overt discouragement and a simple lack of affirmation from her environment. Hook and Ashton reviewed both internally and externally focused interventions.

McDonald (2002) presented the case of Jeanetta, a young mother on welfare who is taking part in a "back-to-work" program. The case illustrates the dilemmas faced by low-income women, but like the other cases in this special section, it also illustrates the huge impact that career counseling from an ecological perspective can have on their opportunities, achievements, and quality of life. McDonald aptly noted that although counselors are seeing an increasing number of federally or state-funded welfare-to-work programs, they have little research or information about intervention strategies to guide counseling efforts. Thus, this would be a prime area for research and for evaluating interventions.

Finally, Spanierman (2002) presented the case of Benita, a 24-year-old African American enrolled in a graduate program in psychology. Like Megan, Benita feels the social isolation of being a "token," in this case an African American in a predominantly White, midwestern university. Like Megan, Benita lacks role models and a social support system. In addition, some ideas I particularly liked were Spanierman's suggestion that the counselor explain the ecological model to the client and that she help her explore her various reference group identities and also family identifications to understand how these affect her worldview. Also, Spanierman recommended that the counselor seek consultation with a culturally sensitive colleague or supervisor. Finally, changes in the environment are needed, including a support group of African American graduate students and a broader search (e.g., on campus, in the community) for role models.

Although I think that the ecological perspective is a useful one, I would inject some cautions too. As important as considering alternative values is refraining from assuming that all women are alike--not all women are relationally oriented; not all women are willing to compromise their careers for family reasons; not all women consider relationships in making career decisions. For some women, career is the top and, in some cases, the only priority. A counselor who communicates disapproval of a woman who prioritizes career above all else because of her assumption that women make decisions relationally does as great a disservice to her client as does a counselor who fails to see that making contextual decisions is important to some women.

In addition to caution in assuming that all women share the same values, I would note that this kind of ecological model increases the complexity of assessment and makes research difficult. An ecological model is in essence an ideographic model--each person's "ecosystem" differs both qualitatively and quantitatively from the ecosystems of all other individuals. I hope that the future work of Cook, Heppner, and O'Brien focuses on providing guidelines for assessment of the "ecological system" of an individual and suggestions for how counselors might go about evaluating its effectiveness as an approach to career counseling. In the meantime, however, I believe that this article and the associated case studies will be useful to individuals who are interested in improving career counseling with women.

References

Betz, E. L. (1984). A study of the career patterns of college graduates. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 24, 249-264.

Betz, N. E. (1989). The null environment and women's career development. The Counseling Psychologist, 17, 136-144.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513-531.

Cook, E. P., Heppner, M. J., & O'Brien, K. M. (2002). Career development of women of color and White women: Assumptions, conceptualization, and interventions from an ecological perspective. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 291-305.

Davidson, M. M., & Huenefeld, N. (2002). Struggling with two identities: The case of Eileen. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 306-309.

Fitzgerald, L. F., & Betz, N. E. (1994). Career development in cultural context: The role of gender, race, class, and sexual orientation. In M. Savickas & R. Lent (Eds.), Convergence in career development theories (pp. 103-117). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Flores, L. Y., Byars, A., & Torres, D. M. (2002). Expanding career options and optimizing abilities: The case of Laura. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 311-315.

Harmon, L. W. (1967). Women's working patterns related to the SVIB housewife and "own" occupational scores. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 17, 77-80.

Hook, M. K., & Ashton, K. (2002). Transcending a double bind: The case of Jenna. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 321-325.

McDonald, D. L. (2002). Career counseling strategies to facilitate the welfare-to-work transition: The case of Jeanetta. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 326-334.

Perrone, K. M. (2002). Sexual harassment and dual-career issues: The case of Megan. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 317-320.

Spanierman, L. B. (2002). Academic self-efficacy within a culture of modem racism: The case of Benita. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 331-334.

Super, D. E. (1957). The psychology of careers. New York: Harper.

Wolfson, K. P. (1976). Career development patterns of college women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 23, 119-125.

Nancy E. Betz, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nancy E. Bet; Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 1885 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210 (e-mail: [e-mail]).