Examining the Emergence of Brain Development Research.

The Promises and the Perils

We must resist the temptation to leap from PET scan to PTA without considering the impact that promotion of this emerging information can have on parents, children, and classroom practices.

Emerging information on how the young child's brain develops is exciting professionals and illuminating the field of early care and education. Young children have become the focus of long-awaited and much-needed attention from scientific researchers, educators, politicians, and the media. Early childhood educators are relishing the public spotlight and striving to take advantage of opportunities that brain development research is creating. They also, however, must face the challenge of interpreting and correctly translating this new information into appropriate and effective child care and early education practices.

The authors hope that the research can fulfill its promise to improve children's lives; at the same time, it is important for early childhood professionals to reflect upon both the promises and the perils associated with emerging scientific discoveries. Even after decades of research, only recently has the use of sophisticated technologies and advances in the field of biochemistry allowed scientists to address, with some degree of certainty, the workings of the human brain. We need to keep in mind that the growing body of brain development research represents a multifaceted work in progress, and, as such, is not a singular nor completed study from which easy or simplistic conclusions can be drawn. There is much yet to be learned regarding interpretation and application of brain research. We must resist the temptation to leap from PET scan to PTA without considering the impact that promotion of this emerging information can have on parents, children, and classroom practices. The authors hope that this examination of the promises and perils of brain development research will generate reflection and discussion among our early childhood colleagues, and that such discourse will guide and temper the profession's interpretation and use of neurological information.

Young Children and Childhood

Current research may provide new insights regarding neurological development that will lead to enhanced opportunities and experiences for children; however, we must take pains that such a focus on children will not be misplaced, and that the emerging scientific research will not be misused by the well-intentioned but ill-informed.

The Promise: In April 1994, the Carnegie Task Force on Meeting the Needs of Young Children provided a wake-up call by announcing in its report Starting Points that America was in the midst of a "quiet crisis" (Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1994). This Task Force report placed before the American people alarming facts about the plight of many children under the age of 3 and their families, including inadequate prenatal care, difficulties associated with single-parenting, substandard child care, poverty, and a lack of stimulating experiences for these infants and very young children. Around the same time, the television program "I Am Your Child" aired in prime time on the ABC network, which signaled the beginning of a national campaign by the Reiner Foundation to focus attention on the issues and needs of young children and families in the U.S.

At last, the nation is focusing attention on children for children's sake, with an emphasis on the importance of the earliest years for growth, development, and learning. Issues of children's health care and other critical needs are making newspaper headlines, while related legislation is being proposed at both the state and national levels. Such a focus on children also has placed child care and early childhood education under close scrutiny. The Carnegie report (1994) called attention to the need for enhanced caregiver preparation and instructional strategies for early childhood that are more closely aligned with young children's growth and development patterns. Brain development research confirms what early childhood professionals have asserted in the past - the young mind needs rich and stimulating experiences. Furthermore, emerging research from the neurosciences informs us that young minds can do more at an earlier age than we previously had assumed. It is promising that this scientific confirmation of what we have long believed, as well as new insights regarding neurological development, may lead us to focus on creating many opportunities to enhance children's early development and experiences.

The Peril: While the excitement of the moment is renewing interest among policymakers, educators, and psychologists regarding the importance of childhood and early growth and development, and new knowledge is being used to improve child care and education practices, such progress is imperiled when the focus on children becomes misplaced and emerging scientific research is misused. For example, Goal 1 of the National Education Goals for the year 2000 states that "By the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to learn" (National Governors' Association, 1990). This goal invites us to revisit and redefine the concept of "readiness" from an earlier, limited focus on attaining specific skills and knowledge, to a concept that is substantially more encompassing (National Association of State Boards of Education, 1991), and that is more compatible with current understandings about neurological development and brain growth. McCart and Stief (1995) provide a definition of readiness that includes dimensions of child development associated with physical health and nutritional status, emotional well-being, social development, and language richness.

This more current definition of readiness also encompasses aspects of the contexts in which children grow and learn, including families and cultural groups, early childhood programs, schools, and communities. A peril exists in not recognizing that factors associated with prenatal development, physical growth and health, emotional development, and interactive environments and experiences all influence the manner in which individual brains become neurologically "wired."

Neuroscientists have identified "windows of opportunities" during which specific types of neurological development emerge and the brain's circuitry matures. We now know that different regions of the brain are actively developing and maturing according to certain timetables, and that during these periods there is heightened sensitivity to environmental influences. The peril rests in believing that these "windows of opportunities" are so absolute that failing to take advantage of one will lead to unfavorable outcomes for children. While to some extent this is true (Caine & Caine, 1997; Shore, 1997; Sylwester, 1995), efforts to prescribe experiences or script social and cognitive interactions may result in a child's achievement or progress being evaluated according to a narrow, all-or-nothing philosophy. This, of course, returns us to a deficit model of thinking, which suggests that the child is somehow at fault for failing to respond or learn, and therefore requires "fixing."

From experience, we know that many misguided school policies relating to admission, progress reporting, retention, and assignment to remedial or special education programs have resulted from misunderstandings and misapplications of narrow concepts of "readiness." Rigid assumptions about what a child can, should, and will be able to do runs counter to the best practices currently embraced, based on the idea that children's learning is more effective when adults focus on what a child can do, rather than on what he cannot do.

Early Intervention for Children With Special Needs

Emerging brain development research is helping educators better recognize the range of risk factors occurring at different points in development, but we must resist exploiting such information to the extent that it leads to unrealistic expectations of progress for children with special needs.

The Promise: Emerging brain growth and neurological development research may eventually significantly benefit children with special needs. Someday, educators may be able to better direct their efforts toward preventive and, perhaps, corrective measures. Awareness of risk factors, and of the extent to which the human organism is particularly sensitive to them at particular periods during neurological development, holds promise for more precise and effective intervention strategies. As new intervention strategies are designed, professionals will be better equipped to focus on the biological vulnerabilities and developmental characteristics of infants and young children with special needs, and on the types of physical and psychosocial environments that are most likely to provide optimal development.

The Peril: It is crucial that these promises are not exploited to the extent that parents, psychologists, educators, and health care professionals expect children with special needs to achieve greater progress than is possible. Unrealistic expectations exact an unnecessary toll on these children, who challenge our best intervention efforts. While professionals certainly should continue to design and implement more sensitive and appropriate programs for all children, it is nonetheless unethical to mislabel, mislead, and miseducate our most vulnerable children.

Early Childhood Care and Education Practices

By centering attention on how children learn, we will be able to use that information as a foundation for improving early childhood education; however, premature interpretation and misapplication of "brain-based learning" may narrow the focus of early childhood care and education to content, producing cookie-cutter programs and interfering with young children's optimal development and learning.

The Promise: Research suggests that children must be mentally and physically active in the process of learning, that the brain best processes information when it is presented in integrated wholes, and that, while age-appropriate ranges exist, each child learns in his or her own particular way and time (Bredekamp, 1987; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Dewey, 1916/1963). As we learn more about the way the brain wires itself from birth and better understand the learning processes, we can position ourselves to use that knowledge to create effective, child-centered learning environments and instructional practices.

The Peril: We must keep in mind that each child has ever-expanding circles of influences, including the family, cultural groups, child care programs, schools, and other community affiliations (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1986). Misinterpretation of"brain-based learning" runs the risk of narrowing the focus of the curriculum content and misdirecting the teacher's attention to narrow definitions of learning, thus circumventing important issues associated with whole child development and broader circles of influence on human growth and development. This narrowing of instructional foci and strategies leads to a phenomenon known as downshifting (Caine & Caine, 1997), a psychophysiological response that occurs when an individual is confronted with cognitive tasks that are inappropriate, meaningless, repetitious to the point of mental fatigue, or that present a perceived threat of failure. Teaching strategies that impose undue stress, boredom, or fatigue cause some learners to downshift. Frequently accompanied by a sense of helplessness, downshifting affects the brain's ability to function at high levels and engage in creative thought. In the developing brain, persistent downshifting can interfere with optimal development and learning. Narrowed curricula and high performance expectations (with an inappropriate emphasis on specific types of learning) increase the risk of creating an atmosphere that is not conducive to perceiving, questioning, and constructing meaning, and that may actually hinder brain growth.

Skepticism is prudent concerning the explosion of cookie-cutter programs touted as "brain-based," as it is for research that overstates the current knowledge level in brain research. One should be particularly careful to avoid claims that specific curricula can produce cognitive gains in children heretofore unachieved by other means. We have, at this time, no data to support such claims. Until more data is available, we must caution against the notion that a "brain-based" curriculum provides a quick fix. (For an informed discussion of brain-based education practices, the reader is referred to Caine & Caine, 1997.)

Parenting Practices

It is encouraging that parents now know that holding, talking, singing, reading, and encouraging exploration "feeds" their children's brain development. However, we should safeguard against entrepreneurs who overreact, make ill-informed generalizations, and market commercialized "quick-fix" solutions.

The Promise: For some time now, early childhood professionals have known that experiences occurring between the earliest prenatal beginnings and the third year of life are of utmost importance to the child's cognitive, academic, emotional, and social development (Sylwester, 1995). Current brain development research is supporting such beliefs. The long-held notion that a newborn's brain is genetically established and innately programmed is falling to the wayside; new technological and biochemical advances that allow for watching the brain of a newborn demonstrate how neural connections are formed as the infant interacts with the environment. Parents constantly affect the wiring of their children's brains and profoundly influence their personalities and intelligence levels. Parents will be reassured to know that the essential "food" for the brain comes from what most of them already do naturally with their children and enjoy: rocking, playing peek-a-boo, singing lullabies, talking - in short, sharing all loving physical and verbal interactions, and encouraging explorations.

The Peril: New information produces a surge of interest that may result in overreactions, ill-informed generalizations, and commercialization. For example, we know that "windows of opportunity" exist in which the brain is particularly efficient at specific kinds of learning (Shore, 1997), but, again, parents need assurance that the window does not close on a child's third birthday. There always remains room and the need for nurturance, love, and stimulation. At the same time, parents need to be warned about entrepreneurs suggesting quick-fix methods for "raising your child's I.Q." We must step cautiously into an era of "high-stakes brain development," in which commercially produced educational kits, books, media, toys, and programs targeted for infants and young children are marketed as superior because they promote brain development. Products based on brain research must not be allowed to raise the hopes of unsuspecting parents and educators, without cause. As professionals, we must support parents in resisting trends toward "neuromania," and we must recognize programs and experiences based on accurate interpretations of emerging research.

Public Policy

The current interest in brain growth and neurological development provides a wonderful opportunity to build public support for ensuring appropriate experiences for young children. Resultant policies, however, must remain attentive to the most critical needs of young children, and address essential, rather than superficial, needs.

The Promise: The reporting of brain development research in such mainstream magazines as Newsweek (Begley, 1996) and Time (Nash, 1997) has brought the importance of a child's first years into the public arena. As Newberger (1997) states, the interest generated by the new research is a wonderful tool for building public support for young children and early childhood education. Never before have so many opportunities for advocacy on behalf of families and children existed. Such advocacy supports efforts to improve health care, parent education, early intervention, child care, and educational practices that are deemed essential for the healthy development of infants and young children. Public policy, however, also must support expanding opportunities for collaborative research and for the application of new knowledge. Shared interest in improving opportunities for our youngest citizens promises to bring together the collective minds of scientists, educators, parents, physicians, child care providers, business leaders, policymakers, and researchers from a variety of fields. Such widespread collaboration holds tremendous potential for informing all of our related professions, and particularly the early childhood profession.

The Peril: Local, state, and national public policies stand to be shaped by brain development research. State policy driven by brain development research is emerging. The governor of Georgia recently requested state funding to purchase more than $100,000 worth of classical music cassettes and discs, to distribute to all parents of newborns. Sony produced a compact disc entitled "Mozart Makes You Smarter" (Mozart, 1994). "Beethoven's Babies," a program proposed in Florida, includes daily sessions of playing classical music in all state-funded child care and early education classes. While a growing body of research supports a connection between classical music and intelligence, it is questionable whether this is an appropriate use of funds.

Even as we revel in the attention that brain development research has brought to early care and education, it is essential that funding be targeted to applications that will provide the most positive changes in the lives of infants, young children, and their families. Funding for programs supporting infants, young children, and their families must be evaluated judiciously, and policymakers must address critical issues such as nutrition, medical care, quality of out-of-home care, training and professional development for early childhood educators, parental education and support systems, and early diagnosis and intervention for children with special needs. We caution that policy based on the influence of brain development research must remain aligned with the most critical needs of young children.

Conclusion

During the White House Conference on Early Childhood Development and Learning (April 17, 1997), First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton expressed enthusiasm about the conference's potential. She also stated her hope that the information would neither burden nor overwhelm parents, and gave a cautious reminder that the early years are not the only years. "There is always room for appropriate stimulation, loving, and nurturing care by adults who are invested in a child," the First Lady said.

The authors do not want to cast a pall upon the almost euphoric welcome being given to the revelations from the scientific community. "At last!" we say. Much of what scholars and practitioners in child development and early childhood education have been proposing for years finally can enjoy the confirmation of scientific "hard" data. What we have observed through naturalistic studies, the research of neuroscientists can now, for the most part, corroborate. Therefore, we are in an excellent position to make the case for developmentally appropriate practices, and for programs that collaborate with families to ensure optimal development during the early formative years.

As we move into an exciting and welcome era of child development and early education research, we must continue to respond with good intentions, accurate interpretations, and authentic relationships with children. Our focus must remain on the complexities of whole child development and not center solely on the workings of the brain. Potential for both promise and peril exists as the scientific community reveals more and more about how the young brain becomes neurologically organized, and as consumers of this information, both in and out of the education profession, begin to interpret and apply it in daily interactions with children. As Benjamin Franklin said ever so wisely, over 200 years ago, we should "make haste slowly."

References

Begley, S. (1996, February 19). I am your child. Newsweek, 127(8), 55-61.

Bredekamp, S. (1987). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood education (Expanded ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood education (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723-742.

Caine, R., & Caine, G. (1997). Unleashing the power of perceptual change: The potential of brain-based teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Carnegie Corporation of New York. (1994). Starting points: Meeting the needs of our youngest children: The report of the Carnegie Task Force on Meeting the Needs of Young Children. New York: Author.

Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. (Original work published 1916)

McCart, L., & Stief, E. (1995). Governors' Campaign for Children: An action agenda for states. Washington, DC: National Governors' Association.

Mozart, W. (1994). Mozart makes you smarter [CD]. New York: Sony Music Entertainment, Inc.

Nash, M. (1997, February 3). Fertile minds. Time, 149(5), 48-56

National Association of State Boards of Education. (1991). Caring communities: Supporting young children and families: The report of the National Task Force on School Readiness. Alexandria, VA: Author.

National Governors' Association. (1990). Report adopted by members of the National Governors' Association. Washington, DC: Author.

Newberger, J. (1997). New brain development research - A wonderful window of opportunity to build public support for early childhood education! Young Children, 52(4), 4-9.

Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development. New York: Families and Work Institute.

Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educator's guide to the human brain. Alexander, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

White House Conference on Early Childhood Development and Learning. (1997, April 17). What new research on the brain tells us about our youngest children. Internet transcript retrieved from www.ed.gov./offices/OERI/ECI/news.html

Additional Suggested Readings and Resources

Brandt, R. (1997). On using knowledge about our brain: A conversation with Bob Sylwester. Educational Leadership, 54(6), 16-19.

Bruer, J. (1997). Education and the brain: A bridge too far. Educational Researcher, 26(8), 4-16.

Caine, R., & Caine, G. (1991). Making connections: Teaching and the human brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Calvin, W. (1996). How brains think: Evolving intelligence then and now. New York: Basic Books.

Edelman, G. (1992). Bright air, brilliant fire: On the matter of the mind. New York: Basic Books.

Elias, M., Zins, J., Weissberg, R., Frey, K., Greenberg, M., Haynes, N., Kessler, R., Schwab-Stone, M., & Shriver, T. (1997). Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Jacobson, L. (1998, April 8). Education policy makers embrace brain findings. Education Week, XVII(30), 1-20.

Jenson, E. (1998). Teaching with the brain in mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Web Sites

www.iamyourchild.org

Early childhood information and help for parents and caregivers

www.naeyc.org

National Association for the Education of Young Children

www.familiesandwork.org

The Families and Work Institute

www.ed.gov./offices/OERI/ECI/news.html

White House Conference on Brain Development Research, April 1997

www.ericps.ed.uiuc.edu/ericeece.html

Center for Career Development in Early Childhood

www.negp.gov

National Goals 2000

www.childrensdefense.org

Children's Defense Fund 

Margaret Puckett is a Retired Professor, Early Childhood Education, Texas Wesleyan University, Fort Worth. Carol Sue Marshall is Assistant Professor, Early Childhood and Elementary Education, The University of Texas at Arlington. Ruth Davis is Assistant Professor, Early Childhood Education, Texas Woman's University, Denton.