Ethnobotanical notes on Thangmi plant names and their medicinal and ritual uses.

Introduction

Over the past six years, in the course of documenting the grammar of the Thangmi language, I have found the lexicon to be replete with indigenous names for local flora and fauna. Many of these indigenous terms are falling into disuse, or being replaced by Nepali words as fluency in the national language increases. Older Thangmi speakers have encouraged me to document the local botanical terminology, and the medicinal and ritual uses of the plants as a record for younger generations of Thangmi speakers as well as for the international scholarly community. With this goal in mind, the present article offers a list of Thangmi lexical items for flora.

Since I am untrained in ethnobotany and taxonomy, the vernacular English terms and Latin names which I have included may in some cases be incorrect and I am unable to ensure accuracy. However, I have crosschecked each term and its associated ritual or medicinal uses with at least three native speakers of Thangmi, and the Nepali and Latin names for plants, alongside the common vernacular English terms, are always provided when known. The list has been ordered according to a modified Roman alphabetical ordering, with aspirates such as/kh/and/th/ following the unaspirated series. After each Thangmi term, (D) for Dolakha and/or (S) for Sindhupalcok are shown to indicate the Thangmi speech variety in which the word is attested. While many botanical terms are common to both dialects, some terms are noticeably different.

A note on the Thangmi language and its speakers

The Thangmi language is spoken by an ethnic group of the same name, known as Thami in Nepali, who live primarily in the districts of Dolakha and Sindhupalcok in eastern Nepal. According to the last population census taken in 2001, Nepal is home to 18,991 mother tongue Thangmi speakers and 22,999 ethnic Thangmi. For a variety of reasons, which I have discussed elsewhere at greater length (Turin 2000), I believe these population statistics to be a considerable underestimate. I place the total ethnic Thangmi population closer to 30,000 in Nepal, with another 5,000 or so in Darjeeling and Sikkim in India. While the genetic position of the Thangmi language is not the substance of this article, it may interest readers to know that Thangmi shows a certain affinity with the Kiranti languages spoken in eastern Nepal, particularly with regard to the complex and pronominalised verbal agreement system (see Turin 1998 for further details). Furthermore, there are striking similarities between the lexicons of Thangmi and Classical Newar, and while the status of these lexical isoglosses is not clear, they are discussed in greater length in Turin (in press).

Ethnobotanical research on the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal

For over 50 years, scholars have been documenting the flora of Nepal. These writings offer a mine of important information pertaining to the ethnobotanical and indigenous medicinal systems of Nepal's ethnic communities. A number of excellent compilations and books are available in Kathmandu bookshops which offer comparative lexical lists (see Rajbhandari 2001), formatted databases and extensive bibliographies of Himalayan ethnobotany. Many of the earliest, and now seminal, articles on Nepalese ethnobotany, including inventories of botanical terminology in specific Tibeto-Burman languages, have been published in the pages of this journal (see Bhattarai 1989 and 1991, Manandhar 1993 and 1998, and Shrestha 1985 and 1988), along with substantial contributions in Kailash, the Journal of the Natural History Museum (Nepal), and the Journal of the Nepal Research Centre. In keeping with this tradition, it seems fitting to publish this preliminary Thangmi botanical word list in Contributions to Nepalese Studies and thereby add to the corpus of knowledge available to scholars both in and of Nepal.

Thangmi plant names and their uses

adhai ~ adai (D) & (S)

Nepali kakro

cucumber, Cucumis sativus 

The fruit is edible both raw and cooked. The older fruits are traditionally cooked as a vegetable curry or preserved as a pickle. When consumed raw, cucumbers are believed to protect against jaundice and to counteract the negative effects of smoking. Ritual uses are limited to the Hindu festival of tij, during which it-is auspicious if a cucumber is the first solid food consumed after the conclusion of the fast.

ahel (D) ~ syunnan (S)

Nepali dabdabe

garuga, Garuga pinnata; Lannea coromandelica

The only use is as fodder for domesticated animals.

akal (D) ~ cyolampi (S)

Nepali seto kaulo

a species of tree, Persea odoratissima

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals while the bark is used to flavour sel roft and as a red dye. The wood of the trunk is burned as firewood, and the better sections are used in house construction and for furniture.

akan (D) & (S)

Nepali jau

barley, Hordeum vulgare

This hard grain is made into flat breads or a porridge-like substance. The ritual uses of barley include the cleansing of polluted spaces in marriage and death ceremonies, during which the grains are burned in the fire to frighten away evil spirits. Barley stalks are used as thatch on roofs and are also collected as fodder for domesticated animals. If the auspicious day of sombare ausi falls within the month of pus, then balls of barley flour mixed together with water and cow's milk are taken to the nearest river and thrown in. This offering is believed to bring peace to the spirits of the dead.

akyarak (D)

Nepali bako

the bulb of an arum lily, Arum campanulatum

The inside of the bulb is eaten as a polenta-like paste in times of hardship, after being peeled, dried, beaten and cooked. The 'eyes' or new sprouts of the bulb are poisonous to humans if consumed, as are the seeds,

akhyak (D)

Nepali bhus

barley and wheat inflorescence 

The inflorescence is fed as fodder to cows in the months of cait and baisakh.

altak (D) ~ pataren (S)

Nepali laliguras

the Nepalese rhododendron tree, Rhododendron arboreum

In the winter months, the fresh leaves make good fodder, but when the flowers are in bloom, the leaves are poisonous to animals. The wood of the trunk can be burned as firewood or used for furniture and house beams. If the flower is consumed by someone choking on a fish or chicken bone, the petals are believed to remove the obstruction and help the swallowing reflex.

kiji altak (D)

Nepali kalo guras

the black rhododendron, Rhododendron grande

See above under altak for uses.

amum (D) ~ amom (S)

Nepali cyau

mushroom

bagalya amum (D)

Nepali chate cyau

This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the months of asar and bhadau.

ciripitik amum (D)

Nepali chala cyau, patpate cyau

a species of edible mushroom, Flammulina velutipes

This chewy mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry or preserved as a chutney. It ripens in the month of saun.

kiji amum (D) ~ kiji amom (S)

Nepali kalo khane cyau

honey fungus, Armillariella mellea

This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the months of saun and bhadau.

kulla amum (D)

Nepali kan cyau

This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the month of bhadau.

ninis amum (D)

Nepali kan cyau

This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the months of asar and bhadau.

nunu amum (D)

Nepali dudh cyau

This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the month of bhadau.

arka (D) & (S)

Nepali okhar

walnut, Juglans regia 

The nut can be eaten raw. The outside shell gives off a black dye when beaten, and this is used to paint house doors. The bark of the tree trunk as well as the leaves are used as a poison to stun fish, for which the preparation is as follows: the bark is stripped off and leaves collected, these are then beaten and little pieces are thrown in the water where fish are known to swim. The substance in the bark temporarily stuns the fish after which they float to the surface and can be collected. The poison does not affect humans and consumption is thus safe. The trunk of the tree is used for timber and household furniture, while smaller pieces are burned as firewood. At bhai tika during the Hindu festival of tihar, women place walnuts in the doorways of houses. When cracked, these are believed to kill local demons.

anen (D) & (S)

Nepali harkaulo

The leaves are collected as fodder for several domesticated animals, and the small red nut is roasted and peeled to be eaten as a snack. The trunk is used in furniture construction on account of its strength.

asip (D) & (S)

Nepali ghurmiso, ghurbaiso

The leaves are collected as fodder for cows and goats. The timber is used for making traditional bee hives, since bees are partial to this wood. The flowers, which blossom in the month of cait, secrete a sweet juice and are eaten,

au (D) [ritual language]

Nepali ap

mango, Mangifera sylvatica; Mangifera indica 

The fruit is consumed, and the wood is used as timber.

awakdu calak (D) & (S)

Nepali tite gittha

bitter air yam, Dioscorea bulbifera

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The bulb, which grows underground, is boiled in water, peeled and eaten as a snack in the month of magh. The fruit, which ripens in the months of kartik and masir, can also be boiled and eaten.

bagale (D) ~ rise (S)

Nepali bilaunt

a species of tree, Maesa chisia; Maesa indica

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals.

barma (D) ~ barma (S)

Nepali amriso, amliso

bouquet grass, Thysanolaena agrestis

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, but are more commonly used to make brooms. During wedding rituals and pujas for newly constructed houses, individual stalks of bouquet grass are placed in various locations around the house to create an auspicious environment. The plant also has medicinal uses for women during labour or childbirth: when a baby has been born but the placenta is not forthcoming, then bouquet grass roots are tied together, along with a copper coin, and placed in the woman's navel. This is believed to expedite the expulsion of the placenta. If the leaves are eaten by either animals or humans during pregnancy, then the foetus, will likely be aborted. This characteristic is also shared by the melunpan discussed below.

bagale (D) ~ bagalya (S)

Nepali aru

peach, Prunus persica 

The edible fruit ripens in the month of bhadau and is consumed raw. The wood from the trunk is used to make furniture while the chippings are burned as firewood.

bajaren (D) ~ awa (S)

Nepali kacopat, surti

locally-grown tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum 

The old leaves, after being dried in the sun and crumbled, are rolled into ageri or sal (Shorea robusta) leaves, and smoked as cigarettes. The leaves have a medicinal quality when beaten, mixed with water, and smeared over a goat's body. This concoction is believed to combat infestations of lice or fleas. If insects are consuming or destroying spinach or other leafy greens, then this same mixture of beaten leaves and water can be used as an effective pesticide. The leaves are also used for rituals: when curing a case of possession, Thangmi shamans place hot coals on a large bajaren leaf. Millet flour is then sprinkled on top of the coals, attracting the spirit and burning it on the coals. The polluted leaf-plate is then taken to a fork in the path and left there, so that the spirit will be unable to find its way back.

baldane (D) ~ bandalek (S)

Nepali totala

a species of tree, Oroxylum indicum

In every Thangmi ritual and in each house, there must be at least one dried baldane fruit. The plant does not grow in the Thangmi-speaking area and must therefore be brought from the Terai. The seeds also have a medicinal use when finely beaten, mixed with water, and strained. This concoction is fed to patients suffering from a high fever or pneumonia, and is believed to help restore health or bring down the fever. The Thangmi ritual word for this species in the Dolakha dialect is darjum.

ban kwai (D) ~ run kawi (S)

Nepali ban tarul

potato yam, Dioscorea bulbifera

The bulb is edible after being boiled and peeled, and the creeper has a flower which can be eaten in a similar manner. When eaten raw, the bulb can help reduce throat pain. The leaves are collected as fodder and fed to domesticated animals. On maghe sakranti, after an early morning ritual at the nearest water source, a tika is made from raw ban kwai and placed on the forehead of attendees.

bena (D)

Nepali khasru

brown oak of the Himalaya, Quercus semecarpifolia

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the tree trunk is used to make furniture, doors and windows. The chippings are burned in the household fire. The resin from the tree is collected and can be drunk as a medicinal infusion for stomach ache.

bephun (D) & (S)

Nepali ghurmiso, ghurbaiso

The leaves are collected as fodder for cows and goats, and the timber is used for making traditional bee hives. The flowers, which blossom in cait, secrete a juice which makes them sweet and edible.

bok (D) ~ bo? (S)

Nepali makai-ko phul, dhancamara

top of the maize or rice inflorescence, Zea mays and Oryza sativa

The blossoms are collected as fodder for cows and goats. The flowers are visited by bees.

bosin (D) ~ busin (S)

Nepali uttis

alder, Nepal black cedar, Alnus nepalensis

The wood is used for furniture and household construction and also for making beehives. The leaves, while not eaten by animals, are collected and used as fertiliser in small-scale cardamom cultivation.

botle (D)

Nepali harkato

a species of fodder

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals.

brusin (D) ~ bhere (S)

Nepali paiyu

the wild cherry tree. Prunus puddum

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the tree trunk is used to make furniture, doors and windows. The chippings are burned in the household fire. Straight brusin branches are used during the Thangmi wedding ritual to support the bamboo canopy or marquee.

bun (D) ~ ame? (S)

Nepali dhancamarako mathi, parag

inflorescence at the 'op of the maize or rice blossom

Other than lot bees, who collect the nectar, the inflorescence has no use.

bhambala (D) ~ cyokre (S)

Nepali culetro

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals.

cange (D) ~ caingya (S)

Nepali latthe sag

pigweed, Amaranthus viridis; Amaranthus albus

The green leaves are prepared and eaten as a vegetable curry, and are believed to help cure diarrhoea. The seeds of the flower are ground into a powder and mixed with water, and are taken as an infusion to help with general 'gastric' problems. The seeds can also been beaten and fried in clarified butter and fed to pregnant women to lessen pregnancy pains.

calak (D) ~ cala? (S)

Nepali gittha

air potato, Dioscorea bulbifera

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The bulb can be consumed when boiled and skinned, but the thicker veins must be removed since they are too chewy to be eaten. The creepers have a blossom which can also be eaten when boiled.

calou (D) & (S)

Nepali ban sisnu

Himalayan nettle, Girardinia diversifolia

The very top bud is edible when prepared as a vegetable curry. The stems are beaten, dried and boiled to make a thread which is then woven into traditional nettle clothing. The spines of the Himalayan nettle are believed to stimulate milk production. If cows and buffaloes are not lactating, they are believed to be possessed and are then beaten with the nettles to make them lactate. Thangmi shamans also beat humans possessed by evil spirits with these wild nettles in the belief that this will end the possession. The Himalayan nettle should not be touched or eaten by family members of a deceased person on the day of death. If the deceased is one's mother or father, this prohibition remains in place for a whole year. See also nanai for further information.

caltak (D) ~ calda (S)

Nepali sothar

male shield fern, Dryopteris filix-mas or edible fern shoot, Dryopteris cochleata

This is used as soft padding for livestock pens, and functions as a natural blanket or mattress. When dirty, it is spread on maize fields as fertiliser.

camek (D) ~ came? (S)

Nepali malingo, coya

red Himalayan bamboo, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus or tufted bamboo, Dendrocalamus hamiltoni

The primary use is for making bamboo household articles such as baskets and mats, but it is also used in furniture construction. The small bamboo shoots tan be eaten as a vegetable curry, and the leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. It tan also be used as a rope to tie or bundle things together. Bamboo has multiple ritual uses in Thangmi culture, for example as the flagpole for a shaman's banner in most rituals, and in the construction of various articles to send the deceased to heaven in the Thangmi death ritual. If bamboo leaves are fed to lactating cows and buffaloes, their milk is believed to dry up very quickly. The fodder is therefore only given to male bovines or old females. See also linlin.

kiji camek (D) ~ kiji came? (S)

Nepali kalo nigalo

small mountain bamboo, Arundinaria intermedia 

See above under camek for its uses.

can (D) & (S)

Nepali salla

the chir pine, Himalayan long leaved pine, Pinus roxburghii

The wood is excellent for furniture construction, while the kindling or smaller branches are used as flaming torches to light the way at night. Resin is released from the incisions where branches are cut, and this can be tapped and used as fuel. When dried, the cone at the end of the branches can also be turned into a flaming torch since it is very flammable. This cone exudes a sticky substance which is also used as a glue to bind things together. The wood is also burned during exorcism rituals. During various Thangmi rituals, the flaming torches must be made from can.

carcare ~ carcare (D) & (S)

Nepali pani-lahara

the red-fruited bramble, Rubus moluccanus

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The stems are used to make string or rope to bind things together, particularly to attach livestock to their stakes. The rope is strong enough to be used to pull heavy items, such as in the construction of wooden bridges.

catik (D) ~ (S)

Nepali siris.

the parrot tree, East Indian walnut, Albizia lebbek

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is burned as firewood.

ce (D) ~ ce[??] (S)

Nepali katus, dhalne katus

the Nepal or Indian chestnut tree, Castanopsis hystrix; Castanopsis indica

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is used for furniture construction. The smaller chippings are burned as firewood. The nuts are roasted and eaten as snacks, and the smallest leaves are boiled in water to make ink. During the Thangmi death ritual, shamans use branches of the chestnut tree to kill evil spirits. Leafy branches are dipped in boiling water and used to beat the possessed person (who must be naked for the cure to be efficacious) during Thangmi exorcism rituals.

cile (D) & (S)

Nepali bhyakur

cush-cush, yam, Dioscorea deltoidea, Dioscorea trifida

The bulb and fruit which grow on the creeper are edible when peeled and boiled.

cyala (S)

Nepali tuna tuni

Cedrela tree, Moulmein tree, Toona ciliata

The trunk is used as firewood.

cyothrok (D)

Nepali cutro

a species of barberry bush, common barberry, Berberis asiatica; Berberis nepalensis

This bush is primarily used for fencing on account of its sizeable thorns. In the month of baisakh, a small red fruit ripens which can be eaten raw.

cyurkusuna (D)

Nepali name unknown

a species of grass

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The shrub is strung up in the groom's house the night before a wedding to ensure that the couple have a long and prosperous life together.

dolgaren (D) ~ dalkharen (S)

Nepali sunakhari

epiphytic orchid

This plant is used in Thangmi bhume puja rituals. The flower is placed on top of a wheat flour offering.

dokman (D) ~ do[??]man (S)

Nepali timur

Nepal pepper, prickly ash, Zanthoxlum armatum

Nepal pepper is primarily used as a spice in cooking, particularly in vegetable curry. It can also provide a substitute for lentil soup, eaten with millet or maize paste. The seeds are collected, dried and consumed as a medicine to help case the pain of stomach aches and 'gastric' problems. If a close relative dies, family members are prohibited from eating dokman for six months for ritual reasons. The dried and beaten seeds also function as an effective pesticide against small insects when spread liberally around the base of wheat plants. When made into a liquid paste together with uiren leaves, dokman seeds are an effective weapon against termites and other insects which eat through wood. This paste is applied to wooden house beams or furniture where the wood is eroded by insects. The concoction is believed to emit an odour which is disliked by insects.

domba (D)

Nepali rukh 

The general Thangmi word for tree.

dosken (D) ~ phulu (S)

Nepali ninro, niguro, niuro

the fern, Gleichenia linearis; or the edible fern shoot, Dryopteris cochleata

The fern shoots are edible when cooked as a vegetable curry in the months of bhadau and asoj. When boiled with salt and eaten, the plant has a powerful medicinal use in combating diarrhoea with blood in the stool.

dhapre (D)

Nepali ghiukumari

Indian aloe, Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis)

The gum which is released when the leaves are broken in half is used as a medicinal ointment applied to burns and scalds. Aloe is known to have strong healing powers.

dindin ilen (D)

Nepali rato aiselu

a type of red raspberry, Rubus pentagonus

The fruits ripen in the months of phagun or cait, and are delicious when eaten raw. The roots of the shrub are beaten for use in the preparation of local beer. The stalks of the shrub are used to construct fences around vegetable gardens due to their sharp thorns. During the Thangmi death ritual, after the corpse has been burned, the mourners must block the path on their way back home to stop the spirit of the deceased returning to its village. This symbolic blockage takes the form of a fire lit with flint stones and inflammable plant matter known in Nepali as julo. The thorny branches of the dindin ilen are placed atop this fire, and as the mourners back away, they wave their caps over the flaming pile to take leave of the spirit.

dondon (D)

Nepali bas-ko khapata

The lower leaves or outer covering of the bamboo plant, which fan out at the base of the stem.

donthya (D) ~ botton (S)

Nepali bhalu ningro

a species of thorny bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea

The large leaves of this plant are used to cover newly sown or broadcast seeds so that birds and other pests do not eat them.

dumla (D)

Nepali nebharo

common fig, Ficus carica

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the wood of the trunk is burned as firewood. The 'fruit' ripens between asar and bhadau and is eaten raw. The large leaves are pinned together to make disposable plates for weddings and other local feasts.

elepe ~ helekpa (D)

Nepali halhale

curly dock, common field sorrel, Rumex crispus; Rumex nepalensis

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and can also be cooked and made into vegetable curry for human consumption.

gothe pan (D) ~ ra[??]aduca pan (S)

Nepali cari amilo

Indian sorrel, creeping sorrel, Oxalis corniculata

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the wood of the trunk is burned as firewood. The fruit ripens between masir and magh and is eaten raw. The fresh fruit is also consumed as a medicine to lessen throat pain.

gunjilik (D) ~ gujili[??] (S)

Nepali kuro

a species of sharp-pointed spear-grass, Triumfetta pilosa

When green, the leaves are collected as fodder for goats.

kiji gunjilik (D)

Nepali kalo kuro

Beggar tick, Bidens pilosa

When green, the leaves are collected as fodder for goats.

hakunap ~ kiji ilen (D)

Nepali kalo aiselu-ko bot.

the black raspberry, Rubus foliolosus

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, while the woody older stems are burned as firewood. The fruit ripens between baisakh and asar and tan be eaten raw as a medicine for diarrhoea. The stem is twisted into rope for securing domesticated livestock to their stakes and for attaching oxen during ploughing. The stem is also used as rope to stretch a goat skin in the construction of drums.

ilame (D)

Nepali cheruva jhar

a species of fodder, Lindenbergia indicia 

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. Thangmi villagers use this plant as a natural clock since it stands up high in the daytime and wilts in the evening.

ilen (D) ~ ilyan (S)

Nepali aiselu

a species of edible berry, Rubus lasiocarpus

The thorny branches are used to make fences along property borders to stop animals entering or exiting. The fruits ripen between cait and jeth and can be eaten raw.

ine (S)

Nepali rato bakhre ghas

a species of weed, Desmodium elegans

The leaves are collected as fodder for goats.

jakcho (D) ~ ja[??]co (S)

Nepali gahu

wheat, Triticum sativum; Triticum aestivum

The leaves and stalks are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The grain is harvested between baisakh and jeth and is made into grain paste or baked as a flat bread. The grains tan also be roasted whole and made into a porridge for children. The dried stalks are used as thatch for roofs. Wheat breads are prepared during Thangmi rituals, particularly for marriage and death.

jake (D) & (S)

Nepali camal

uncooked rice, rice in general, Oryza sativa

The leaves and stalks are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The rite grain is harvested between kartik and masir. The grains tan also be roasted whole and made into porridge for children. The dried stalks are used as thatch for roofs. Some form of rice is used in most Thangmi rituals. Rite is a newer import and luxury food, and most Thangmi villagers do not own their own rite fields.

jumu (D) ~ dundup (S)

Nepali jimbu

Nepal aromatic leaf garlic, Allium hypsistum, Allium wallichii

This is used as a spice to flavour lentil soup.

jhumit (D)

no Nepali name available

a species of tree

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is burned as firewood.

kadhrap (D) ~ kyadrap (S) ~ kontap (S)

Nepali malayo

The leaves and stalks are collected as fodder for domesticated animals in the month of masir, and the wood of the tree trunk is burned as firewood. The fruit ripens in masir and is beaten, dried and then made into a chutney. The ripe fruit is useful as a medicine to combat diarrhoea, as an antidote to mushroom poisoning and to lessen the oral irritation caused by eating taro. The plant is also used to make wicker baskets and other goods, and is used by shamans to construct the outer part of their ritual drums. The shape of the branches can be altered using hot water or steam, making them suitable for the construction of items which require elasticity, such as the catapults or slingshots used by children to kill birds.

kamleko thi (D) ~ klicyupui (S)

from Nepali kamle

artillery plant, Pilea symmeria; Pilea wightii

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals in the month of saun and bhadau, and the wood of the tree trunk is burned as firewood.

kampe (D)

Nepali gidro

sort pith of bamboo

This is used exclusively for weaving bamboo baskets and other goods.

kantap (D)

Nepali kamro

a chip of bamboo or splint of wood

These are used to make carrying baskets or cradles, and are secured to the outside of bamboo goods and wicker cots to strengthen them.

kapa (D) ~ kapa[??] (S)

Nepali bas

feathery bamboo, Bambusa vulgare

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The small shoots are edible between asar and bhadau, and are cooked as a vegetable curry or made into chutney. The stronger stalks of bamboo are used as ceiling beams in house construction. Household articles and baskets are commonly made of feathery bamboo. Some roofs, huts and ladders are also made of this species of bamboo on account of its strength. Inside the old bamboo stalks there is a kind of white 'butter' which is an excellent ointment for burns. Inside young bamboo is a different kind of watery substance which is fed to adults and children to stop bedwetting, Feathery bamboo is also used to construct the bier on which the deceased is carried to the cremation ground. This ritual bamboo structure is known as a maransen. Sec also rapa.

karjek (D) ~ karce[??] (S)

Nepali ukhu

sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum

The sap is used as sugar to sweeten tea and is also consumed as a medicine against jaundice. During Thangmi wedding rituals, shamans burn small pieces of sugar cane in the fire along with rice.

kosasen (D)

Nepali kali-kath

a species of tree, Cephalanthus naucleoides

The leaves are collected as fodder for goats. The wood of the trunk and that of larger branches is used to manufacture handles for domestic tools and is also used for furniture. Chippings are burned as firewood.

kunlaren ~ kullaren (D) & (S)

from Nepali karnaphul

a species of flower, Stellaria vestita

This flower is worn for beauty's sake only, and has no practical uses.

kwai (D) ~ bhonya[??] (S)

Nepali alu

potato, Solarium tuberosum

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the bulb is cooked and consumed as vegetable curry.

kwai ~ kwoi (D) & (S)

Nepali tarul

all foot vegetables, and specifically Dioscorea sagittata

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the bulb is consumed as a vegetable after being boiled and peeled. A certain red form should be eaten when suffering from diarrhoea, particularly if the stool is white or red with blood. On the Hindu festival of maghe sakranti, after an early morning ritual at the nearest water source, a tika is made from raw kwai and placed on the forehead of all attendees. It is believed to bring good luck if kwai is eaten before anything else on this morning.

khokorsokor (D)

Nepali sukeko sagpat

The edible dried leaves of any green vegetable.

muikwai (S)

Nepali pustakari

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the bulb is cooked, peeled and eaten.

nem kwai (D) ~ sundan (S)

from Nepali ghar tarul

white yam, Dioscorea alata

See above description for kwai.

kyan (D) & (S)

Nepali cilaune

needle wood tree, Schima wallichii

The wood is used to make ploughs and furniture, and chippings are burned as firewood. The timber is excellent for house construction, however, so little is burned.

khoma (D)

Nepali kodo-ko bhus

the feathery inflorescence of the millet plant

This is collected as fodder for domesticated animals.

lakane (D) & (S)

Nepali mula

radish, Raphanus sativus

The root is eaten raw as a snack, and is also made into a pickle or chutney. Radish is believed to settle the stomach and to reduce gas when eaten raw. The leaves are eaten as a vegetable curry to help against jaundice. When picked and dried, the leaves have a medicinal function as a cure for headaches and fever during the monsoon months.

laca (D) ~ lasa (S)

Nepali ageri

Indian rhododendron, Melastoma melabatricum, Lyonia, Lyonia ovalifolia

The tree trunk tan be burned as firewood, and the leaves are used to roll local cigarettes made of bajaren. When beaten and mixed with cold water, the leaves are rubbed on the skin to reduce inflammations, irritations and allergies. If the leaves are eaten by goats in the months of phagun and cait, they may be poisonous and kill the animal. In such cases, however, the meat of the animal is not poisoned and may still be consumed by humans.

liki ~ likin (D)

Nepali gahu-ko khar, chwali

wheat stalks

Used to make thatch for house roofs.

linlin (D) ~ kiji came[??] (S)

Nepali (kalo) nigalo, malingo, coya (bas)

red Himalayan bamboo, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus; and small mountain bamboo, Arundinaria intermedia; and tufted bamboo, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii

See the above description for camek.

Iona (D) ~ jalat (S)

Nepali lapsi

Nepalese hog plum, Choerospondias axillaris

The leaves are collected as fodder for goats and the fruit is made into chutney. The trunk is used for furniture and burned as firewood. It is believed that if a person with a high fever eats Iona, he or she will likely die.

lunkunin (D)

Nepali kagiyo rukh

silky oak, Grevillea robusta

The leaves are collected as fodder for all domesticated animals, and the trunk is used for furniture and burned as firewood.

lutum (D) & (S)

Nepali gogan

a species of tree, Saurauia napaulensis

The leaves are collected as fodder for all domesticated animals, and the trunk is burned as firewood. The fruit has a seed which is sucked for its sweet flavour.

marci (D)

Nepali khorsani

red pepper, Capsicum frutescens 

This spice is used in the preparation of most curries, and is also used to dis-attach leeches from the body and kill them. Thangmi shamans often use marci in their rituals, both fresh and dried, to exorcise malevolent spirits affecting people or houses. In such rituals, marci is burned in the fire to give off an acrid and foul-smelling smoke.

usare manai (D) ~ mana usyare (S)

Nepali marca

yeast, leaven, Saccharomyces 

Literally meaning 'medicine bread', yeast is used in the fermentation process for making local beer and distilled spirit. It also plays an important role in Thangmi wedding and death rituals, often as a substitute for beer should none be available.

melun (D) & (S)

Nepali macheno

white heather, Gaultheria fragrantissima

The leaves are collected as fodder for all domesticated animals, but only in the months between karthik and phagun. The fruit tan be eaten raw and has a sweet flavour. The leaves are used as perfume and may help to relieve nasal blockages (as a local substitute for Vicks). Shamans use the leaves of the melun in exorcism rituals for humans and cows, during which they are set alight and used to beat the body of the possessed individual.

melunpan (D)

Nepali bimiro

the large wild lime, citron, Citrus medica 

The trunk of the tree is burned as firewood, while the edible citrus fruit, which ripens between bhadau and pus, is eaten raw. The outside skin is sweet, and the inner flesh is sour. The fruit is worshipped during the Hindu festival of tihar. During the Thangmi wedding ritual, the very top of the tree is used to make a necklace for the groom, to whom it is presented on the night before the wedding by the attendant shaman. The plant also has a medicinal use during labour and birth: if the child has been born but the placenta is not forthcoming, then roots of this plant are tied together, along with a copper coin, and placed in the navel of the birthing woman. This is believed to expedite the expulsion of the placenta. Finally, if the leaves are eaten by animals or humans during pregnancy, the foetus will likely be aborted. In these uses, melunpan resembles the barma plant discussed above.

more (D)

Nepali ban silam

the shrub, Perilla frutescens 

When the fresh leaves are rolled between the fingers, a small quantity of juice is released which is very effective in removing leeches from the body. Chinik is the name for a chutney made from the seeds. Once the seeds are black and have ripened, they are picked and ground. The chutney is often eaten with cucumber.

mote (D) & (S)

Nepali bhatmas

soya bean, Glycine max 

The pulse can be eaten fresh or dried, either a roasted snack or in a curried preparation. During the Thangmi death ritual, the dried pulse is used to represent the eyes of the deceased.

mui (D) & (S)

Nepali kera

banana, plantain, Musa x paradisiaca

The fruit is eaten raw and is used in many rituals by neighbouring Hindu castes. The leaves are used in a Thangmi ritual which precedes the marriage ceremony. When a patient is very ill, a shaman may slice a banana lengthways to give the person a chance of living a little longer. This ritual can also be used as a prophylactic measure against future or imminent disease. The sap released by the banana tree is believed to be a good remedy against fever and pneumonia, but only when drunk directly from the tree.

mus (D) ~ syandan (S)

Nepali makai-ko juga 

cornsilk, Zea mays

This is collected as fodder for all domesticated animals.

nanai (D) & (S)

Nepali allo sisnu

Himalayan nettle, Girardinia diversifolia

The same plant as calou, but nanai refers to the practical and ritual purposes and not its use as an edible foodstuff. Sec calou for further description.

nara (D) & (S)

Nepali jara

The root of any plant.

nili (D)

Nepali nibuva

lemon, Otaheite orange, Citrus limon

The tree trunk is burned as firewood only once the tree is dead and dried out. The fruit is sour and is eaten raw, or made into chutney and preserved. The fruit has a medicinal function as an antidote to mushroom poisoning and also against oral irritations caused by eating taro. Sec also pan.

nunuthi (D) ~ nunusen (S)

from Nepali dudhilo

the tree, Ficus neriifolia

Literally meaning 'milk fodder', this is the favourite fodder for most domesticated animals. The trunk is used as firewood, and only rarely for furniture. The fruit, which ripens in bhadau, is edible and has a sweet taste.

nuru (D)

Nepali katahar

jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus; or pineapple, Ananas comosus 

An archaic term, rarely used in vernacular Thangmi. The plant does not grow in the Thangmi-speaking area, but the wood of jackfruit is known to be good for furniture.

nurun (D)

Nepali tori

mustard seed, Indian tape seed, Brassica rapa

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the young leaves are picked and prepared as vegetable curry for human consumption. The leaves tan also be preserved as gundruk. The seeds release an oil which is pressed and extracted for cooking or burned as lamp fuel. The oil is also used for head and body massage, particularly for babies and young children. Mustard seeds are used in the Thangmi death ritual to scare away malevolent spirits, and are sprinkled, together with the pressed oil, on corpses to make them burn speedily during cremation. The oil is applied to bleeding wounds in the belief that this will precipitate healing and prevent infection. Before the heavy monsoon field work begins, both humans and oxen are fed large quantifies of nurun oil, honey and eggs to give them strength for the coming months.

nyakanen (D) & (S)

Nepali sisnu

stinging nettle, Urtica dioica 

The leaves are collected as fodder for all domesticated animals, both raw and cooked. When cooked in water and consumed as a soup, the nettle leaves are believed to stimulate lactation in buffaloes and cows. The flowers and leaves are eaten year round by humans as a vegetable curry or soup, and are known to contain many vitamins good for general health. While some Thangmi still make clothing from nyakanen, the fibre is not as strong as calou, so its main use is culinary. See also calou.

nyancaldak (D) ~ calou (S)

Nepali hade unyau, sothar

male shield fern, Dryopteris filix-max

When the stalks are burned on millet fields, the ash makes a good fertiliser.

palka (D) & (S)

from Hindi palak, Nepali sag

leafy greens, particularly of the Indian mustard plant, Brassica juncea

The word palka is used for the leaves of all edible green vegetables which can be eaten or preserved as gundruk. It is believed that consuming leafy green vegetable matter will lead to good muscular development due to the high level of vitamin content in the leaves.

pan (D)

Nepali amilo

all sour fruits, such as lemons and limes 

The tree trunk of these species can be burned as firewood, but only once the tree is dead and the trunk has dried out. The sour fruits are eaten fresh and raw, or made into chutney and preserved. The fruits also have a medicinal function as an antidote to mushroom poisoning and are believed to relieve the oral irritation caused by eating taro. Sec also nili.

pataya (D)

Nepali soya

rice stalks once the paddy has been removed, Oryza sativa

The stalks are collected as fodder for all domesticated animals. When dry, the stalks are woven into long mats for sitting and sleeping on, known as gundri in Nepali. The dried stalks are further used as roof thatch for traditional houses. Cows may be afflicted by a bad fever in the monsoon months and become weak or be unable to move easily. If pataya are fed as fodder to these ill animals, they have a better chance of making a full and speedy recovery.

pakpak (D) ~ pa?pa? (S)

Nepali bungo

pod of the plantain

These pods have no medicinal, ritual or nutritional value.

pututampe (D)

Nepali kade cap

prickly apple, Catesbaea spinosa

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the timber is used for making furniture. The chippings are burned as firewood.

puya (D)

Nepali biu, biruva, tusa

The general Thangmi term for all seeds or plant shoots.

puyapasa (D) ~ puyapesa (S)

Nepali biubijan

The general Thangmi term for seeds and grains.

phanganen ~ phannanen (D) ~ ya? (S)

Nepali pindalu

giant taro, Alocasia indicum; co-co yam, Colocasia esculenta

The roots are edible if first boiled and peeled. The leaves are eaten as vegetable curry, both fresh and dried. When eaten fresh or cooked in water and made into a soup, the leaves and bulb are believed to stimulate lactation in buffaloes and cows. During the Thangmi death ritual, a phanganen is used to represent the head of the deceased in the reconstruction of the body. The ritual term is ya ~ yak.

phatu (D)

Nepali pharsi

pumpkin, summer or winter squash, marrow, Cucurbita maxima; Cucurbita pepo 

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, but are also eaten by humans as a vegetable curry. The large fruit is also made into vegetable curry when it ripens between the months of jeth and asoj, and the dried seeds are eaten as a peanut-like snack. The fruit is believed to contain agents which help fight jaundice when eaten raw.

racya (D) & (S)

Nepali dhan

paddy, rice in the field, harvested but unhusked rice, Oryza sativa

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the grain is the most cherished foodstuff among Thangmi villagers. Thangmi rituals invariably use rice in some form, raw, cooked or as flour, the uses of which are too numerous to list in the present article. See also jake and pataya.

rani ukkar (D) ~ ukkar (S)

Nepali ban-ko bhyakur

wild cush-cush, yam, Dioscorea deltoidea

The bulb is edible when peeled and boiled, as is the fruit which grows on the creeper.

rapa (D)

Nepali tame bas, tama bas

long bamboo, feathery or tufted bamboo, Bambusa tulda, Bambusa vulgaris

See kapa.

rapacamek (D)

Nepali coya bas

tufted bamboo, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii

See kapa.

raphai (D)

Nepali kaphal

wild strawberry, Fragaria vesca

The tree trunk is used for furniture and firewood, and the 'fruit' which ripens between cait and baisakh is eaten raw. The tree bark, when peeled off, beaten and mixed with water, has a black colour and is used to paint doors and houses. The ripe 'fruit' has medicinal properties for patients suffering from diarrhoea with blood in the stool. It is also believed to cure general stomach infections.

rence (D) ~ renche (S)

Nepali dal, simi

beans, pulses, Lablab purpureus (Dolichos lablab)

The general Thangmi term for beans and pulses of all kinds. The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the dried fruits are cooked as a soup or vegetable curry. Pulses are believed to help stomach cramps when eaten as a soup.

ren ~ ryen (D) & (S)

Nepali phul

The general Thangmi word for flower.

ren mesek (D) ~ ryen-ko mese? (S)

Nepali phul-ko akha

The general Thangmi word for the tepals of a flower, likely a calque from Nepali.

rikhi (D)

Nepali kabhro

a species of tree, Ficus lacor

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals and the wood is burned as firewood.

ruipan ~ ragdu pan (D)

Nepali bhaki amilo, bhakimlo

Chinese sumac, Rhus javanica

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals and the wood is burned as firewood. The fruit, which ripens around the month of pus, can be eaten either raw or as a chutney. The cooked fruit is believed to work as a cure for a distended stomach or serious cramps, for which it is mixed together with water and a raw egg and is drunk down quickly in one go due to its very sour taste.

sabal (D)

Nepali jhyau

coin spurrey, Spergula arvensis

There are two forms, one found on trees and one on rocks. The tree variety has no use, while the rock variety is applied to deep cuts or wounds for its healing and antiseptic qualities.

syoksyok (D) ~ syo?syo? (S)

Nepali lokta

Daphne bholua

This is used to make rope or string to secure livestock and the bark is used to make traditional paper. It is only with the advent of development projects and cottage industries that paper production has taken off. The stalks are used to weave sitting or sleeping mats (gundri in Nepali). The raw leaves are fed to baby goats suffering from fever or diarrhoea in the belief that these will cure illness.

sana ~ sawa (D) & (S)

Nepali kodo

finger millet, Eleusine coracana

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the grain is harvested and eaten by humans as a kind of paste. During the Thangmi death ritual, balls of millet flour, known as ere in Thangmi, are cooked and eaten by the officiating shaman and mourners. Pregnant women are fed millet paste in the belief that this will give them the necessary strength to deliver their baby and will produce a strong child.

sempher (D)

Nepali besar

turmeric, Curcuma longa; or Indian arrowroot, Curcuma angustifolia

The leaves are useless but the root is used to flavour curries and soups. The root is also boiled in hot water and drunk as an infusion to help ease throat pains, cold, coughs and fever. Turmeric should not be consumed by people with jaundice as it is believed to make their skin turn even more yellow.

sempir (D) ~ semper (S)

Nepali aduva

ginger, Zingiber officinale 

The leaves are useless but the root is used to flavour curries and Soups. The foot is also boiled in hot water and drunk as an infusion to help case throat pains, cold and coughs.

sijigare (D) ~ sidigare (S)

Nepali siudi

prickly pear, Opuntia monocantha

The thorny bush is very effective as a fence to control animals movements. The milk extracted from the stem is collected and used to stun (or even kill) fish in small bodies of water. This milk is a powerful poison which has an acidic quality that can burn the skin or even blind if brought into contact with the eyes. When suffering from a splinter which cannot be removed by hand or with tweezers because it has lodged too far under the skin, a small drop of prickly pear milk can make the wound heat up and disgorge the offending splinter. Moreover, a dab of this same milk can be used to dry up painful boils on the body. Thangmi villagers often cut a little piece of the prickly pear bush and place it on their roofs or above their doors to prevent attacks from malevolent spirits. It is also believed to protect humans from suffering from fainting spells. Thangmi shamans feed a very small amount of the milk to individuals who are bewitched because the poison will make the spirit want to depart from the affected body.

sinlati (D) & (S)

Nepali bhimsen pate

butterfly bush, Buddleja (Buddleia) asiatica

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is burned as firewood. During Thangmi wedding rituals, the female relatives of the groom wear necklaces made of the white flower.

sisin (D)

Nepali sal

Sal tree, Shorea robusta

The trunk is used for furniture and also burned as firewood. The large leaves are pinned together and used as disposable plates during festivals and rituals. The resin is burned as an intense because it releases a pleasant smell.

srai (D)

Nepali jhinani (D)

a species of small tree, Eurya japonica, also Eurya symplocina

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is used for furniture and house construction. The chippings are burned as firewood.

sumuhu (D)

Nepali suntala

orange, Citrus sinensis; mandarin, tangerine, Citrus reticulata

An archaic term, rarely used in vernacular Thangmi. The trunk is burned as firewood when dead and dry, and the fruit is sweet and edible. The peel is eaten as a cure for tonsillitis and fever or headaches, although the fruit is not eaten at such times. The fruit is used by Hindus, but not in Thangmi rituals.

sunamre (D)

Nepali phalame kada

a species of tree with large spines, Homalium napaulense

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is burned as firewood.

sunamre (D)

Nepali hade bine

the tree, Ilex dipyrena

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is burned as firewood. The fruit, when ripe and black, can be eaten raw as a sweet tasting snack.

suru (D)

Nepali supari

betel nut, areca nut, Areca catechu 

An archaic term, rarely used in vernacular Thangmi.

tensen (D) ~ tensin (S)

Nepali ban

The general Thangmi word for a forest, jungle or dense woodland area.

toringya (D) ~ tory (S)

Nepali ghiraula

serpent or snake gourd, Trichosanthes cucumerina

The fruit, which ripens between the months of bhadau and kartik, can be cooked and eaten when small. When dried, the fruit acts as an excellent loofah-like scrubbing brush for washing the body or clothes.

tampe (D)

Nepali cap

a species of the magnolia tree, Magnolia campbelli

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals, and the trunk is the highest grade, most prized wood for furniture and house construction. It is also the preferred wood for bee hives since bees are attracted to it. The chippings are burned as firewood.

tiku pan (D) ~ uchu (S)

Nepali kimbu

mulberry, Morus laevigata

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals and the wood is burned as firewood. The fruit, which ripens around the month of pus, is edible and can be eaten either raw or as chutney. The fruit is also believed to lessen throat infections and swellings when catch raw.

tukusin (D)

Nepali lakuri

a species of ash tree, Fraxinus floribunda 

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals and the wood is burned as firewood or sometimes made into furniture. Bees favour the nectar of these flowers above other nectar, and even humans are known to like its taste.

thare

Nepali jhar

The general word for weeds or tufts of grass.

kiji thare (D)

from Nepali kali jhar

crofton weed, Eupatorium adenophorum

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals.

leplep thare (D)

Nepali khole jhar

a species of plant, Lecanthus peduncularis

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. This species grows in and around marshes or bogs.

namdu thare (D) ~ namdu chyare (S)

from Nepali ganaune jhar

goat weed, Ageratum conyzoides

The strong-smelling leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals.

ragdu thare (D) ~ icidu chyare (S)

Nepali abijalo

a species of small annual plant, Drymaria cordata

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. This species commonly grows as a weed among tea bushes. This plant has a medicinal function when beaten, cooked with water, strained and consumed: it is believed to ease the pain of sore throats, fevers and headaches.

thi

Nepali ghas

The general Thangmi word for fodder.

ubhonkhati

Nepali gaitihare phul

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The leaves, when beaten and strained through water, can help cure a fever, although their flavour is very bitter.

uireg (D)

Nepali titepatl

mugwort, Artemisia vulgaris 

The leaves are collected and burned fresh as incense. They are also an essential component of Thangmi rituals, particularly used to purify ritual space and the human body. If a Thangmi individual becomes ritually polluted by drinking someone else's beer, thin consuming a few fresh leaves of mugwort will help to restore ritual purity. Thangmi shamans may eat mugwort leaves to purify themselves before major rituals. When eaten or rubbed on the body, the leaves are believed to protect against allergic reactions on the skin. The leaves also function as a pesticide when beaten and mixed with water to create an infusion which is then sprinkled on wooden furniture or household structures infested with termites or other wood-eating insects to make them disperse. The same infusion works as a pesticide when poured onto the freshly sown or early sprouting wheat seedlings.

ukkar (D)

Nepali ban-ko bhyakur

wild cush-cush, yam, Dioscorea deltoidea

The bitter-tasting bulb is edible when peeled and boiled, as is the fruit which grows on the creeper.

umak (D)

Nepali amba

guava, Psidium guajava

An archaic term, rarely used in vernacular Thangmi. The fruit, which ripens between the months of bhadau and masir, can be eaten raw. The trunk of the tree is burned for firewood. The tree bark is collected, pounded into dust, added to hot water and then drunk as the best local medicine against dysentery with blood in the stool.

uskol (D) ~ oskol (S)

Nepali bhalayo

marking nut, Semecarpus anacardium; cashew nut, Semecarpus occidentale

The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals and the trunk is burned as firewood. Its primary use is in the purification ritual for a new house or settlement, during which the officiating shaman prepares seven stakes of this wood, placing one in each corner of the house, one by the door, one in the courtyard and one at the nearest fork in the road. These stakes are believed to keep the ghosts and evil spirits at bay. Furthermore, when the milk of cows or buffaloes has turned or is no longer tasty, the milch animals are said to be possessed. The seeds of these two nut species are added to the milk to restore its taste, and to mark the departure of the possessing spirits. Livestock possession can also be counteracted by burning the seeds as incense, since the smoke is believed to chase spirits away. Should the resin of the tree come into contact with the human body, a strong allergic reaction occurs which burns the skin. This swelling and the associated pain can be reduced by applying goat milk.

wacaren (D)

from Nepali ban kera-ko phul

The resin which is released when the fruit is broken in two is sticky and is used as an adhesive to bind things together. The only use for the flower is during the Thangmi bhume puja, at which time it is placed on top of the wheat flour effigy which dominates the ritual.

wala (D)

Nepali thulo pat

any large leaf

warewasan (S)

Nepali phalphul

all fruit

yurkunsuna (D)

Nepali, Latin and vernacular English terms unknown.

a species of shrub of which the flower is used during Thangmi wedding rituals.

Conclusion

As the above list amply demonstrates, indigenous Thangmi ethnobotanical understanding is extensive and sophisticated. Many of these plants are still used medicinally in preference to Western bio-medicine. The sheer volume of Thangmi lexical terms for plant species outweighs any other discrete class of nouns which I have collected in my Thangmi-Nepali-English glossary. I hope that botanists and scholars of natural science will be able to use this list, together with the countless others that exist for the languages and cultures of Nepal, to develop a comparative and coherent understanding of the ethnobotanical knowledge of Himalayan peoples.

Note

I am extremely grateful to Nirmal Man Tuladhar for encouraging me to submit this paper to Contributions, and for his help in chasing down little-known Latin names for plants indigenous to the Himalayan region. As ever, Sara Shneiderman has provided excellent editorial comments. Dr. Daniel Barker has been of great help in verifying Latin and vernacular names, and I thank him for his time and expertise. Particular thanks to Bir Bahadur 'Lile' Thami, without whose linguistic and botanical insights this paper would have been much shorter and far less insightful.

References

Bhattarai, N. K. 1989. 'Ethnobotanical Studies in Central Nepal The Ceremonial Plant-Foods', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 16 (1): 35-41.

Bhattarai, N. K. 1991. 'Ethnobotanical Studies in Central Nepal: The Preservation of Plant-Foods', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 18 (2): 211-221.

Manandhar, Narayan P. 1993. 'Ethnobotanical Note on Folk-Lore Remedies of Baglung District, Nepal', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 20 (2): 183-196.

Manandhar, Narayan P. 1998. 'Ethnobotanical Census on Herbal Medicine of Banke District, Nepal', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 25 (1): 57-63.

Rajbhandari, Keshab R. 2001. Ethnobotany of Nepal. Kathmandu: Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal.

Sacherer, Janice. 1979. 'The High Altitude Ethnobotany of the Rolwaling Sherpas', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 6 (2): 45-61.

Shrestha, Purushottam. 1985. 'Contribution to the Ethnobotany of the Palpa Area', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 12 (2): 63-80.

Shrestha, Purushottam. 1988. 'Contribution to the Ethnobotany of the Tamangs of the Kathmandu Valley', Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 15 (2): 247-266.

Turin, Mark. 1998. 'The Thangmi Verbal Agreement System And The Kiranti Connection', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, LXI (3): 476-491.

Turin, Mark. 2000. 'Time for a True Population Census: The Case of the Miscounted Thangmi', Nagarik (Citizen), II (4): 14-19.

Turin, Mark, in press. 'Thangmi-Newar Lexical Correspondences' in George van Driem, ed., Topics in Himalayan Linguistics. Brill: Leiden.

MARK TURIN is completing a grammar of Thangmi, a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in eastern Nepal. He is Director of the Digital Himalaya Project <www.digitalhimalaya.com>, and has half-time positions at the University of Cambridge and Cornell University. He is a frequent contributor to Contributions to Nepalese Studies and the Nepali Times. Email: [e-mail].