Establishing Dimensional Guidelines for Lost Foam's 'White Side'.Inside This Story: * A key to consistent casting quality is controlling the factors affecting foam pattern tolerances. These factors are outlined for foundries, tool builders and end-users. * Generic Generic Describes the characteristics and/or experience of the total universe of a coupon of MBS sector type; that is, in contrast to a specific pool or collateral group, as in a specific CMO issue. tolerances for diameter diameter - The diameter of a graph is the maximum value of the minimum distance between any two nodes. , linear, true position and flatness are provided for foam patterns. Whatever tolerance tolerance /tol·er·ance/ (tol´er-ans) 1. diminution of response to a stimulus after prolonged exposure. 2. the ability to endure unusually large doses of a poison or toxin. 3. drug t. 4. is set must be split between three parties--the tool builder, the foam molder mold·er v. mold·ered, mold·er·ing, mold·ers v.intr. To crumble to dust; disintegrate. v.tr. To cause to crumble. See Synonyms at decay. and the foundry A semiconductor manufacturer that makes chips for third parties. It may be a large chip maker that sells its excess manufacturing capacity or one that makes chips exclusively for other companies. . * Four case studies detail tolerances and casting designs achieved in lost foam in "real world" applications. The rules of lost foam still are being written. From casting design to production, the basics of the process and what lost foam casting can achieve still are being discovered. At the AFS A distributed file system for large, widely dispersed Unix and Windows networks from Transarc Corporation, now part of IBM. It is noted for its ease of administration and expandability and stems from Carnegie-Mellon's Andrew File System. AFS - Andrew File System International Lost Foam Conference held October October: see month. 23-24 in Frankenmuth, Michigan Frankenmuth is a city in Saginaw County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 4,838 at the 2000 census. The city is located within Frankenmuth Township, but is politically independent. , 211 members of the engineering, purchasing and metalcasting communities gathered to discuss the rules of lost foam design and casting. From tooling parameters and the dimensional capabilities of foam pattern molding molding, in architecture, furniture, and decorative objects, a surface or group of surfaces of projecting or receding contours. A molding may serve as a defining element, terminating a unit or an entire composition (e.g. ("white side") of lost foam casting to future market opportunities and process developments, conference presentations focused on providing information that laid a foundation for the continued growth of this casting process. This article focuses on one of those presentations, detailing dimensional tolerances for lost foam patterns. Foam Pattern Tolerances For both the end-user (job) end-user - The person who uses a computer application, as opposed to those who developed or support it. The end-user may or may not know anything about computers, how they work, or what to do if something goes wrong. and foundry audiences, the white side of lost foam casting often presents the greatest challenges and questions. What tolerances should be used for lost foam tooling, foam patterns and castings? What are the dimensional capabilities of foam patterns? One key to the white side is to establish consistency Consistency can refer to:
* quality of tooling and tool construction--Are cast tools or CNC (Computerized Numerical Control) See numerical control. CNC - Collaborative Networked Communication tools being used?; What is the quality of the guides, bearings and alignment Alignment is the adjustment of an object in relation with other objects, or a static orientation of some object or set of objects in relation to others.
* tool complexity--including parting offsets, number and complexity of pulls, and reduced draft areas; * control of the pattern production process--Are the pattern fusion fusion, in physics. 1 The change of a substance from the solid to the liquid state, also known as melting. The heat given up by a unit mass of a substance during fusion is called the latent heat of fusion. See also melting point. and cooling processes, removal methods from the tooling, and raw material variability monitored appropriately?; * number of glue glue: see adhesive. glue Adhesive substance resembling gelatin, extracted from animal tissue, particularly hides and bones, or from fish, casein (milk protein), or vegetables. lines or pattern segments--An increased number of glue lines reduces the capability on certain dimensions across glue lines; * pattern age control (shrinkage Shrinkage The amount by which inventory on hand is shorter than the amount of inventory recorded. Notes: The missing inventory could be due to theft, damage, or book keeping errors. )--Tighter tolerance needs in the casting may require a tighter window of use in foam age or heat aging. Wide tolerances allow greater variation in pattern age before casting; * control of pattern age at gluing--This is required for a more consistent fit of foam segments in nests and better printer to segment alignment; * type and quality of glue nests--Aluminum nests are more accurate and durable than synthetic Synthetic A financial instrument that is created artificially by simulating another instrument with the combined features of a collection of other assets. Notes: materials. CNC cut nests are more accurate than poured epoxy epoxy Any of a class of thermosetting polymers, polyethers built up from monomers with an ether group that takes the form of a three-membered epoxide ring. The familiar two-part epoxy adhesives consist of a resin with epoxide rings at the ends of its molecules and a curing ; * part size and geometry--Larger parts can mean wider tolerance needs; * type and quality of molding and gluing equipment used--Is the molding equipment dedicated? Is the gluing equipment dedicated? Is it the right piece of equipment for the job? These numerous factors present a greater challenge to control during the tool build, foam molding and casting production steps. In addition, whatever tolerance is set must be split between three parties--the tool builder, the foam molder and the foundry. Lost foam castings and their tolerances must be designed with the end users' application needs in mind. The tightest tolerances aren't aren't Contraction of are not. See Usage Note at ain't. aren't are not aren't be to be established just to "prove a point." Design tolerances should be for form, fit and function, while keeping an eye on foam molding realism realism, in art realism, in art, the movement of the mid-19th cent. formed in reaction against the severely academic production of the French school. and capability. A rule of thumb with tolerances is that unless a unique design is negotiated up front, a typical target for a nominal Trifling, token, or slight; not real or substantial; in name only. Nominal capital, for example, refers to extremely small or negligible funds, the use of which in a particular business is incidental. NOMINAL. Relating to a name. foam dimension is based on the casting and foam shrink shrink Vox populi noun A psychiatrist , letting the layout
Layout may refer to:
Basic Tolerances For foundries, tool builders and design engineers, generic tolerances for lost foam patterns (suggested basic tolerances considering all aspects affecting dimensions) are as follows:
Diameter Tolerance
0-1 in. [+ or -]0.007 in.
1-3 in. [+ or -]0.015 in.
3-6 in. [+ or -]0.025 in.
In the case of diametes split by glue lines, 0.005-0.010 in. should be
added dependent on foam size.
Linear Tolerance
0-2 in. [+ or -]0.005-0.10 in.
2-5 in. [+ or -]0.010-0.20 in.
0-5 in. with glue lines [+ or -]0.025-0.035 in.
Flatness Tolerance
Area 3 x 3 in. [+ or -]0.007 in.
Area 10 x 10 in. [+ or -]0.015-0.020 in.
More than 10 in. [+ or -]0.030-0.050 in.
Flatness can be affected by the foam, foam geometry, molding cycle
control and foam removal.
True Position Tolerance
0-2 in. 0.025 in.
2-4 in. 0.030 in.
4-10 in. 0.030-0.60 in.
+ 10 in. 0.080 in.
When defining casting tolerances for the key product characteristic dimensions, the importance of a joint team (foundry, foam molder, tooling source and end-user) effort cannot be understated. Often, product designs and design criteria Noun 1. design criteria - criteria that designers should meet in designing some system or device; "the job specifications summarized the design criteria" criterion, standard - the ideal in terms of which something can be judged; "they live by the standards of their being used for lost foam are from another process. Therefore, understanding the product and tool design are paramount Paramount (pâr`əmount'), city (1990 pop. 47,669), Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1957. Originally a dairy region, it has become highly industrialized since the 1950s. to establishing suitable tolerances. The initial product launch team meeting also is required to establish what the capabilities of the process are for the specific part. The team can establish how the design can be changed and improved to accommodate the design, tooling, production and tolerance needs of the part. Without this team approach (or only half of the team available), the result can be a sand or diecasting product design being produced in lost foam without the added value Added value in financial analysis of shares is to be distinguished from value added. Used as a measure of shareholder value, calculated using the formula:
This approach also allows the foam tool to be designed and targeted for specific dimensions where tight tolerances are required. It allows the design to be robust in nature, resulting in less critical tolerance requirements in appropriate areas. In addition, this allows the tool shop to build considerations into the tooling where changes are likely to occur after sampling. These initial team discussions can direct the pattern molder to create a robust process for optimum dimensional capability. The areas in the foam molding process to review are: segment aging; material handling; steam and cooling times (Law) such a lapse of time as ought, taking all the circumstances of the case in view, to produce a subsiding of passion previously provoked. - Wharton. See also: Cooling ; and part removal. Another critical point is that tooling dimensions can be "re-targeted" after pattern and casting sample capabilities are known. Five rules of thumb that provide optimum foam pattern tolerances are: 1. Multi-segment patterns should have datums on the same slice of foam whenever possible. 2. Internal passageways and features formed across glue lines should consider slice alignment tolerances. 3. Controlled, product specific molding and gluing processes should be used. 4. Controlled, product specific packaging for work in progress foam patterns and finished goods should be used. 5. Controlled storage conditions should be used for foam patterns. Points to Remember Three key points are critical to remember when designing tolerances into lost foam castings: * review the part design and tolerance needs as a team prior to design completion and commitment to tooling; * where tighter tolerances are required, tooling design features and adjusted foam patternmaking patternmaking In materials processing, the first step in casting and molding processes, the making of an accurate model of the part, somewhat oversize to allow for shrinkage of the cast material as it cools. processes can be incorporated to enhance dimensional capability; * design lost foam components for form, fit and function, not the tightest tolerances. This article was adapted from a presentation at the AFS International Lost Foam Conference. RELATED ARTICLE: Mack Truck Oil Filter Housing. (Tolerance Case Studies) This four-segment glued glue n. 1. a. A strong liquid adhesive obtained by boiling collagenous animal parts such as bones, hides, and hooves into hard gelatin and then adding water. b. foam pattern is produced from expandable polystyrene polystyrene (pŏl'ēstī`rēn), widely used plastic; it is a polymer of styrene. Polystyrene is a colorless, transparent thermoplastic that softens slightly above 100°C; (212°F;) and becomes a viscous liquid at around 185°C; bead bead Small object, usually pierced for stringing. It may be made of virtually any material—wood, shell, bone, seed, nut, metal, stone, glass, or plastic—and is worn or affixed to another object for decorative or, in some cultures, magical purposes. at 50,000 pieces/yr. The foam has complex glue lines because most of the glue line area is curved and angular angular /an·gu·lar/ (ang´gu-lar) sharply bent; having corners or angles. instead of flat. The foam segments are produced from one tool set; therefore the foam molding cycle is the same for all four segments. The casting was designed from scratch scratch v. scratched, scratch·ing, scratch·es v.tr. 1. To make a thin shallow cut or mark on (a surface) with a sharp instrument. 2. To use the nails or claws to dig or scrape at. for lost foam. It was designed with datums on more than one segment due to the complex part design and the methods required to machine the product. The high tooling complexity is due to the deep pockets and offset parting lines. Dimension Casting Average Standard (mm) Spec. Dimension Deviation Cp CpK 156.96 156.96 +/- 1.00 157.421 0.229 6.360 3.430 0 +/- 1.00 0.760 0.434 2.080 0.500 32.24 32.24 +/- 1.00 31.625 0.221 7.680 2.950 85.14 85.14 +/- 1.00 85.790 0.115 6.230 2.180 Valeo Valeo is a French automotive components manufacturer. History The Société Anonyme Française du Ferodo was founded in 1923 in Saint-Ouen, a suburb of Paris. It first distributed brake linings and clutch facings under license of Ferodo UK. Steering The process whereby builders, brokers, and rental property managers induce purchasers or lessees of real property to buy land or rent premises in neighborhoods composed of persons of the same race. Housing This three-segment foam pattern is produced from EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) A PostScript file format used to transfer a graphic image between applications and platforms. EPS files contain PostScript code as well as an optional preview image in TIFF, WMF, PICT or EPSI, the latter being an ASCII-only format. bead at approximately ap·prox·i·mate adj. 1. Almost exact or correct: the approximate time of the accident. 2. 300,000 pieces/yr. The tooling consists of 12 cavities, four sets out. Flatness and segment alignment are the critical features of this product to ensure that the volume of fluid able to pass through the channels meets specifications. The product has been designed and PPAP PPAP Production Parts Approval Process PPAP Production Parts Approval Program approved to allow mixing of cavity cavity /cav·i·ty/ (kav´i-te) 1. a hollow place or space, or a potential space, within the body or one of its organs. 2. in dentistry, the lesion produced by caries. segments to produce complete manifolds This is a list of particular manifolds, by Wikipedia page. See also list of geometric topology topics. For categorical listings see and its subcategories. Generic families of manifolds
Dimension Casting Average Standard (mm) Spec. Dimension Deviation Cp Flatness 0.50 max 0.232 0.042 3.450 43.844 43.844 +/-0.75 44.060 0.345 2.750 18.36 diameter 18.36 +/-0.5 18.421 0.099 2.560 18.36 true position 0.5 max (1.586 max) 0.636 0.253 1.210 30.3 30.30 +/-0.5 30.850 0.035 6.420 30.3 true position 0.35 Max (1.439 max) 0.474 0.202 3.070 Dimension (mm) CpK Flatness n/a 43.844 1.960 18.36 diameter 2.240 18.36 true position 1.210 30.3 3.670 30.3 true position 3.070 Ford Focus Transmission Cover. (Tolerance Case Studies) This single segment foam pattern is produced from EPS bead at approximately 400,000 pieces/yr. The complex tooling consists of four cavities with six interlocking interlocking /in·ter·lock·ing/ (-lok´ing) closely joined, as by hooks or dovetails; locking into one another. interlocking Obstetrics A rare complication of vaginal delivery of twins; the 1st pin core pulls per cavity. The keys to this product are flatness and positioning of the tower and passageways. Product tolerancing is tight and product capability is critical because four cavities (not just one) exist that have to meet product capability. Products from all four cavities, while mixed randomly, have to meet 1.33 CpK requirements on Key Product Characteristics. Dimension Casting Average Standard (mm) Spec. Dimension Deviation Cp CpK Flatness 0.3 0.123 0.039 1.640 1.640 42.508 diameter 42.508 +/- 0.5 42.470 0.045 4.430 4.080 Perpendicularity 0.25 0.074 0.045 2.540 2.540 125.04 125.04 +/- 0.5 125.170 0.093 2.100 1.560 7.507 diameter 7.507 +/- 0.3 7.719 0.031 5.320 1.560 Mercury Marine Mercury Marine, founded in 1939, is a division of Brunswick Corporation of Lake Forest, Illinois, in the United States. Company beginnings The company began when engineer Carl Kiekhaefer purchased a small outboard motor company in Cedarburg, Wisconsin. 3-Cylinder Block This five-segment foam pattern is produced from expandable polystyrene bead at 30,000 pieces/yr. All of the glue lines are flat; however, one is at 90[degrees] to the other three glue lines. Four tool sets are required to produce one complete block, with four presses required for each product. All of the machining datums have been designed into one segment of foam, which allows for a best-fit type of segment alignment during gluing. The key to this product is to ensure that the cylinder cylinder, in mathematics, surface generated by a line moving parallel to a given fixed line and continually intersecting a given fixed curve called the directrix; each line of the family of lines forming the cylinder is called a ruling, or generator. bores are aligned correctly with tight tolerance for consistent cylinder wall sections after machining. All other outside features on the block have been designed with broader tolerances in mind, allowing "fit and function" precedence The order in which an expression is processed. Mathematical precedence is normally: 1. unary + and - signs 2. exponentiation 3. multiplication and division 4. . The tooling complexity is high due to the numerous pullbacks, mating mating /mat·ing/ (mat´ing) pairing of individuals of opposite sexes, especially for reproduction. assortative mating , assorted mating, assortive mating parting lines and deep pocket areas.
Dimension Casting Average Standard
(mm) Spec. Dimension Deviation Cp CpK
9.818 9.818 +/-0.028 9.830 0.006 2.520 1.410
10.900 10.90 +/-0.05 10.921 0.006 6.190 3.620
2.528 2.528 +/-0.02 2.529 0.002 5.690 5.310
2.528 2.528 +/-0.02 2.530 0.008 3.480 3.110
2.528 2.528 +/-0.02 2.530 0.006 1.810 1.630
0.612 0.612 +/-0.02 0.617 0.006 3.100 1.600
AFS Inventory Clearnance Sale
Prices Reduced 20-80% (*)
Environmental
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
EC8501 Industrial Noise Control-
An Engineering Guide $10.00 $10.00
EC8900 2nd Annual Environmental Affairs
Conference - 1989 $5.00 $5.00
EC9000 3rd Annual Environmental Affairs
Conference - 1990 $5.00 $5.00
EC9500 1995 Environmental Affairs
Conference - 1995 $5.00 $5.00
EC9700 Environmental Health & Safety
Conference - 1997 $5.00 $5.00
EC9800 Environmental Health & Safety
Conference - 1998 $5.00 $5.00
EC9900 11th Annual AFS Environmental
Health & Safety Conference - 1999 $5.00 $5.00
ITEM # LIST
EC8501
$20.00
EC8900
$10.00
EC9000
$10.00
EC9500
$10.00
EC9700
$10.00
EC9800
$10.00
EC9900
$10.00
Ferrous
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
FC7507 Ductile Iron Production Practice $20.00 $30.00
FC8400 Foundrymen's Guide to Ductile Iron
Microstructures $20.00 $30.00
FC9500 International Channel and Coreless Induction
Melting of Iron Conference - 1995 $20.00 $20.00
FC9800 International Inoculation Conf. - 1998 $30.00 $30.00
FC9801 2nd International Cupola Conf. - 1998 $5.00 $5.00
ITEM # LIST
FC7507 $40.00
FC8400
$40.00
FC9500
$40.00
FC9800 $60.00
FC9801 $5.00
General Metalcasting
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
GM7607 Guide to Sand Additives $10.00 $15.00
GM8300 Key Minimum-Maximum Standards
Process Control System, The $8.00 $8.00
GM8702 Casting Buyer's Guide $10.00 $15.00
GM8802 Graphite Flotation in Ductile Iron $2.00 $2.00
GM9101 Application of Robotics and Automation
to the Foundry Industry:
57th World Conf - 1990 $10.00 $10.00
GM9103 Expendable Pattern Casting Conf.-1991 $5.00 $5.00
GM9200 Expendable Pattern Casting $20.00 $30.00
GM9201 Foundry Binders and Environment: 58th
World Foundry Conf. Proc. - 1991 $10.00 $15.00
GM9203 Engineering and Inspection Guide to
Fracture Mechanics $10.00 $15.00
GM9205 Cleaning Castings $20.00 $30.00
GM9300 ISO Conference - 1993 $5.00 $5.00
GM9301 Expendable Pattern Casting: Managing
the Technology (Conference) - 1993 $5.00 $5.00
GM9403 Compendium of Squeeze Casting Info. $10.00 $10.00
GM9404 Expendable Pattern Casting Volume 1:
Process Manual $20.00 $30.00
GM9405 Expendable Pattern Casting Volume 2:
Tooling Manual $20.00 $30.00
GM9406 Expendable Pattern Casting Volume 3:
Casting Defects Manual $20.00 $30.00
GMEPC3 Expendable Pattern Casting - Set of 3 $50.00 $75.00
GM9408 Proceedings from the Reduce, Reuse,
Reclaim Conference - 1994 $5.00 $7.50
GM9600 American Foundrymen's Society at 100:
A Century of Service, The $10.00 $10.00
GM9601 World Foundry Congress - 1996 $5.00 $5.00
GM9602 World Foundry Congress
Technical forum - 1996 $5.00 $5.00
GM9701 Achieving Six Sigma Maintenance:
Developing a World Class
Maintenance Program $20.00 $30.00
GM9702 Regresando A Lo Basico: Introduccion en
Arena Verde (Green Sand Primer
in Spanish) $15.00 $22.50
GM9900 Casting Defects Handbook CD-ROM $22.00 $33.00
ITEM # LIST
GM7607 $20.00
GM8300
$16.00
GM8702 $20.00
GM8802 $4.00
GM9101
$20.00
GM9103 $10.00
GM9200 $40.00
GM9201
$20.00
GM9203
$20.00
GM9205 $40.00
GM9300 $5.00
GM9301
$10.00
GM9403 $20.00
GM9404
$40.00
GM9405
$40.00
GM9406
$40.00
GMEPC3 $100.00
GM9408
$10.00
GM9600
$20.00
GM9601 $10.00
GM9602
$10.00
GM9701
$40.00
GM9702
$30.00
GM9900 $44.00
Nonferrous
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
NF8502 Thermal Analysis of Molten Aluminum
Conference-1985 $10.00 $15.00
NF9000 Solidification Characteristics of Aluminum
Alloys-Volume 2: Foundry Alloys $60.00 $90.00
NF9200 3rd International Conference on
Molten Aluminum Processing - 1992 $15.00 $22.50
NF9400 2nd International Conference on
Cast Metal Matrix Composites - 1993 $20.00 $30.00
NF9500 3rd International Permanent Mold Casting
of Aluminum Conference - 1995 $5.00 $5.00
NF9501 Design and Procurement of High-Strength
Structural Aluminum Castings $10.00 $15.00
NF9502 Microstructures and Thermal Analysis of
Strontium-Treated Aluminum-Silicon
Alloys $30.00 $45.00
NF9600 Solidification Characteristics of Aluminum
Alloys-Volume 3: Dendrite Coherency $60.00 $90.00
NF9700 4th International Conference on Permanent
Mold Casting of Aluminum - 1997 $10.00 $10.00
ITEM # LIST
NF8502
$20.00
NF9000
$120.00
NF9200
$30.00
NF9400
$40.00
NF9500
$5.00
NF9501
$20.00
NF9502
$60.00
NF9600
$120.00
NF9700
$20.00
Other Source
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
OS0004 Copper Alloys for Permanent Mold Castings $3.00 $3.00
OS8500 Atlas of Cast Corrosion-Resistant
Alloy Microstructures $20.00 $20.00
OS8600 Practical Foundrymen's Guide to Feeding
and Running Grey, C.G., & S.G.
Iron Castings $55.00 $55.00
OS9809 International Workshop on Permanent
Mold Cast Copper - 1998 $5.00 $5.00
ITEM # LIST
OS0004 $3.00
OS8500
$20.00
OS8600
$55.00
OS9809
$5.00
Researh & Special Reports
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
RR1989 Laboratory Leaching of Organic Compounds
in Ferrous Foundry Process Wastes $2.00 $2.00
RR2004 Production and Machining Thin-Wall Gray
and Ductile Cast Iron $50.00 $75.00
RR9002 Fatigue Properties $2.00 $2.00
RR9101 Composition, Section Size, & Microstructural
Effects on Tensile Properties
of Pearlitic G.I. $2.00 $2.00
RR9401 Emission Characterization & Treatment
Technologies $5.00 $5.00
RR9402 Modified Red Brass with Bismuth-
Phase 1: Literature Review and Analysis $5.00 $5.00
RR9403 Electro-Hydraulic Wave for Core Removal $5.00 $5.00
RR9502 Needs Assessment Survey for
Aerospace Structural Castings-
Final Research Report $5.00 $5.00
SR2000 Phase Separation Technology in
Aluminum Melt Treatment $50.00 $75.00
SR9700 Advance Casting Technology in
Japan and Europe $10.00 $15.00
SR9806 Grain Refinement in Copper-Base Alloys-
A Literature Review $10.00 $10.00
ITEM # LIST
RR1989
$4.00
RR2004
$100.00
RR9002 $4.00
RR9101
$4.00
RR9401
$5.00
RR9402
$10.00
RR9403 $10.00
RR9502
$10.00
SR2000
$100.00
SR9700
$20.00
SR9806
$20.00
Training
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
TE7505 Cupola Melting, Vol. 1 $15.00 $22.50
TE7603 Principles of the Shell Process $15.00 $22.50
TE7704 Fundamental Core Technology $15.00 $22.50
TE8001 Finishing Casting in the Cleaning Room $15.00 $22.50
TE8800 Basic Metalcasting $15.00 $22.50
ITEM # LIST
TE7505 $30.00
TE7603 $30.00
TE7704 $30.00
TE8001 $30.00
TE8800 $30.00
Transactions (Order by Year)
ITEM # ITEM NAME CORP PERS
AFS Transactions 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980
1981, 1982, 1986, 1988 $20.00 $20.00
AFS Transactions 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996 $25.00 $37.50
AFS Transactions 1997, 1998 $50.00 $75.00
AFS Transactions 1999, Vol. 107 $100.00 $150.00
ITEM # LIST
$40.00
$50.00
$100.00
$200.00
(*)Effective October 1, 2001
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion