Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., & Hoffman, R. R. (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance.

Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., & Hoffman, R. R. (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press (899 pp., $65.00, pb, ISBN: 0-521-60081-2).

The primary goal of the handbook is to provide readers with an overview of expertise and expertise performance by discussing the findings of multiple investigations from different theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches. The book is comprised of 42 chapters, written by authors who are considered experts in their fields. It provides a rich source of insights and a great foundation for further study, aided by the extensive references supplied by each author. Broad in scope, one of the challenges that the authors faced was to provide a sense of unity to the book. The editors divided the book into six sections clustered around key concepts. A consistent format in presenting the information, transparent writing, and explicit referencing of relevant chapters makes it easy to identify the claims made and the support provided. These features enable the reader to concentrate on the evidence presented, thereby providing an enjoyable reading experience.

Part I, comprised of three chapters, provides an introduction to the scope of the work. In terms of comprehensiveness, the handbook embraces three types of studies of expertise: the structure and acquisition of highly superior (expert) performance, the development of expertise, and how highly experienced individuals accumulate knowledge in their respective domains and become socially recognized experts. To provide a richer context, these issues are discussed from the perspective of different domains, specifically, education, sociology, computer science, and multiple perspectives on psychology, emphasizing basic abilities, knowledge, and acquired skills. The constraint characteristics are quoted below:

   [T]he authors have been encouraged to describe explicitly
   their empirical criteria for their key terms, such as "experts"
   and "expert performance." For example, the authors have
   been asked to report if the cited research findings involve
   experts identified by social criteria, criteria of lengthy
   domain-related experience, or criteria based on reproducibly
   superior performance on a particular set of tasks representative
   of the individuals' domain of expertise. (p. 14)

These constraint characteristics, faithfully honored by the authors, enable the reader to systematically analyze research conclusions derived from different perspectives and by different methods. Based on the reader's interest, this process can be used to gain a deeper understanding of one specific aspect of expertise or develop a theoretical framework for further study of expertise.

Chapter 2 provides an organizational framework for expertise studies. First, expertise studies are grouped into two broad categories based on sample selection: absolute experts and relative experts. Whereas the goal of the first category of study is to gain an understanding of characteristics common to experts across domains, the focus of the second category is to gain an understanding of how expertise is developed. Additionally, Chapter 2 summarizes assets and constraints of experts and expert performance. The areas in which experts excel are: generating the best solutions to problems, seeing relevant features of problems, spending time on accurate problem presentation, engaging in continual self-monitoring, choosing appropriate strategies, and retrieving relevant domain knowledge and strategies with minimal effort. Areas of possible limitations are that expertise is domain limited and that experts can be overconfident in their skills, inflexible, biased, or tending to gloss over detail. Two additional potential limitations can be experts' dependence on contextual clues and their inability to make accurate predictions of novice performance of a task.

Part II, comprised of four chapters, provides a historical context of theory and methodology from the perspective of different disciplines; specifically, psychology, education, computer science, and sociology. This section may be of special interest to researchers and practitioners who desire to gain a stronger interdisciplinary perspective on expertise studies. It also can be used as basic background information by interdisciplinary teams, providing a context for interdisciplinary dialogue. Parts III (seven chapters) and IV (four chapters) both focus on methods used in expertise studies; however, the focus of the discussion differs. Part III focuses on the structure of expertise, and Part IV focuses on the acquisition and maintenance of expertise. Together they provide an array of goal-specific research methods, generally not discussed in research method texts. This area is a potential goldmine for educational researchers wrestling with the issue of designing rigorous, ecological, valid research that enables them to study their areas of interest.

Part V, which focuses on studies in specific areas of expertise, represents the core of the book. It is comprised of 12 chapters, which are subdivided into three broad domains: professional domain (7 chapters); arts, sports, and motor skills (4 chapters); and games and other types of expertise (4 chapters). Each chapter provides an overview of the domain, relates this discussion to other chapters, discusses the unique aspects of the domain, and concludes with a synthesis of the information. Each chapter also includes extensive references, which provide resources for further study of any of the aspects discussed in the chapter. This section would be especially useful for readers interested in developing a conceptual framework for the study of expertise in a specialized area functioning as a specialized encyclopedia. For readers who are interested in expertise studies per se, this section also could be the basis for an intense content analysis, defining and refining research questions in the context of a larger, multiple-perspective framework, exploring ideas further through the more specialized knowledge reflected in the references.

Part VI is labeled generalizable mechanisms mediating expertise and general issues. This part is comprised of nine chapters, discusses diverse subjects in relation to expertise and expertise performance. The topics include intelligence, tacit knowledge, brain changes in experts, situational awareness, experience and deliberate practice, self-regulatory learning, aging, and creative thinking. While the diverse nature of the topics precludes a generalized synthesis of the content, the juxtaposition of these very diverse concepts does provide a rich context for exploring the deep structures of expertise and expertise performance, raising interesting and relevant research question for further exploration of this important area of study. Thus, this book will make a useful resource for libraries as well as a great reference book for people interested in expertise as a research topic.

This handbook is a well-considered analytic synthesis of the current research on expertise. Although not specifically written for educators or educational researchers, and certainly not for those involved in gifted education, the implications of research on expertise and expertise performance could be used productively to lay the foundation for wise educational policy. Under ideal conditions, the proper use of this research could lead to policy that is beneficial for all students, including the gifted.

I do have a major concern about this work and its application to gifted education: The general underlying assumption of many of the expertise experts is that everyone can obtain expertise in a domain of his or her choice if willing to invest the effort to do so. The difference of learning rates in beginning phases of knowledge acquisition is acknowledged; however, it is pointed out that an asymptotic line is reached at the level of competence. At this point, significant advances are only possible through deliberate practice. I suggest that the logical implication of this observation is that students who reach the level of competence early should be encouraged to continue their growth through deliberate practice and that the failure to do so may impede the growth of students with faster learning rates. The caveat is that in practice, this does not often occur in a classroom setting. The same observations were the basis of mastery learning, which has not generally proven beneficial to high-performing students. Therefore, it seems to me that the data and arguments presented in the handbook could be used to help or impede the growth of students who develop competencies earlier than their peers. Unfortunately, history seems to indicate that the latter is more likely. My best advice is to be thoroughly familiar with the content and context of these studies so that misinterpretation at the policy level can be avoided. With this caveat, I can highly recommend this handbook for anyone who is interested in education and especially gifted and talented education.

Reviewed by Renate Otterbach. After working 5 years as an Education Specialist for Gifted and Talented, Renate Otterbach completed her doctorate in Learning and Instruction at the University of San Francisco and a postdoctorate at the Center for the Psychology of Abilities, Competencies and Expertise (PACE) at Yale. She is currently working as a Senior Research Analyst at the University of San Francisco and teaches classes in research methods at San Francisco State University and Saint Mary's College of California. E-mail: [e-mail]