Enhancing the effectiveness of skill demonstrations.

Physical educators, coaches, and athletes have used films and videotapes of games and even practice sessions as a teaching tool for many years. They have used both self-produced films and tapes and commercially produced materials, as well as live models to demonstrate proper techniques.

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But have they really thought much about how to use these resources? Audio-visual products can be a valuable teaching aid or a big waste of time. We are seeing an increased use of DVD and CD based materials, and even occasionally I-movies. The principles described here would apply to any of the available formats.

Observational learning, or modeling, is often used when learning a skill or a particular sport. It can take the form of watching an expert perform a skill or self-modeling--as watching oneself perform the skill correctly.

Bandura (1986) completed much research on observational learning and describes its importance:

  Fortunately, most human behavior is learned by observation through
modeling. By observing others, one forms rules of behavior, and on
future occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.
Because people can learn approximately what to do through modeling
before they perform any behavior, they are spared the costs of pain and
faulty effort.
  The capacity to learn by observation enables people to expand their
knowledge and skills on the basis of information exhibited and authored
by others. (p. 47)

We are constantly bombarded with marketing materials that are trying to convince us to buy any of a wide assortment of instructional videos, ranging from skill specific material to sport psychology and physical conditioning tapes and CDs. Some of the marketing of youth sport targeted material is even appearing on television. How do you know what to buy, if any of it?

* Preview the product. Some companies, but unfortunately not many, offer the opportunity to preview their products. If this is not possible, try to find a teacher or coach who has already purchased the product and is willing to let you borrow it to view it privately. These audio-video materials are typically very expensive and usually not returnable, so you should preview them to see if they are appropriate for your coaching needs.

* Make regular use of the tapes. Don't just show them to your athletes once and stick them back in the closet. Make them available to refer to during practice as needed and even consider loaning them out for the athletes to take home for brief periods of time.

* When you use videotapes during practice, make sure that it is a directed learning experience. This means that before the tape is shown, you should discuss the goals you want to achieve while viewing the tape. Tell the athletes what specific information you would like them to focus on during the playing of the tape.

We must not assume that athletes automatically know what to watch when viewing videotapes. Even higher skilled and experienced athletes may not attend to the most relevant information presented.

* While watching the tape, prompt the athletes when the target information is appearing. If you have the capability, try to edit or dub tapes to eliminate unnecessary portions so that the athletes won't lose focus on the relevant information. After viewing the tape, review the information with the athletes.

* Use self-modeling in conjunction with showing a videotape of the player. Players will be more likely to see their errors when they watch themselves after watching the particular skill shown executed by an expert. (If you have access to a media services department at your school, it can help you set up a side-by-side image of the expert and your player.)

* Make sure the players understand that they are not supposed to simply copy the expert. Each player has his/her own style and the idea is to learn from the key elements of the model, not to imitate him/her. In his book, Visual Tennis, John Yandell, discusses how one should model certain fundamentals of the tennis stroke rather than idiosyncrasies. "Teachers and players who study the strokes of champions often focus on idiosyncrasies rather than the underlying fundamentals. They end up copying things that are irrelevant or even detrimental to their tennis."

* When using a live model, make sure that the players are not distracted by the novelty of the person's presence at practice. It is most helpful if the person modeling a particular shot or play regularly attends practice (i.e. an assistant coach). The players will be more likely to pay attention to what is being demonstrated, rather than to the model.

SUMMARY

Modeling of skilled performance is a powerful teaching tool. There is no one best way to use skilled performance as a model. However, modeling must be used in a purposeful manner. Goals should be set for the learner prior to viewing the model. The model, whether presented via live performance or via some form of media, should be used frequently. In addition, the learner should be provided instruction as to what specific aspects of the model's performance they should direct their attention. Done purposefully, modeling can help enhance the learning process in sports.

References

Bandura, A. (1986): Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ. * Yandell, J. (1999): Visual Tennis. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.

By Amy Rowland (Ph.D.), Men's and Women's Tennis Coach, John Jay College of Criminal Justice (NYC) and Richard Stratton, (Ph.D.), Sports Psychology Specialist, Virginia Tech University