Enhancing Cognitive Development in College Classrooms: A Review.

University professors encounter more cognitive challenges within the college classroom instructional process than in previous decades. As such, a push for instructional review is echoed on college campuses. This article includes a review of the current literature on cognitive enhancement from the theoretical framework of William Perry's and Jean Piaget's Cognitive State Theory and Lev. S. Vygotsky's Constructivist Theory. Moreover, the article provides an operational definition of development, outlines variables that affect the developmental process, articulates the impact of challenge and support as it relates to development and concludes with a template of cognitive theory for instruction within the college classroom.

The university is widely regarded as the place to develop academic skills and to disseminate knowledge (Winston, Banney, Miller and Dagley, 1988). However, universities must accept another responsibility, holistic development of students. Development occurs from scaffolding critical thinking and transforming character. As such, the task for both administrators and educators is to commit to developing students holistically. The point is, learning can lead to development. Therefore, development cannot be separated from its social context (Vygotsky 1977). Such an undertaking requires strategies other than one-to-one intervention provided by counselors-the college classroom. This researcher sought to review the mechanisms and principles of development, the acquisition and processing of knowledge and social interaction as related to enhancing cognitive development in college students via the classroom.

Development

Development refers to both qualitative and quantitative changes in behavior, physical abilities, social interactions and roles. Most important, development occurs as a consequence of physical maturation or deterioration, influences from the environment, or from an interaction between the current status of the organism and the environment which causes more quantitative shifts in beliefs, values, and attitudes that occur as a person attempts to adapt to the increasingly complex demands of the environment. (Hunt and Schroder, 1961). Developmental psychologists (Neugarten, 1988; Boltes; Reese & Lipsitt, 1980) argue that they are interested in patterns of change in abilities, structures and behavior.

On the other hand, social - cognitive developmental theories encompass what others have referred to as the cognitive-developmental and structural-adaptive theories (Piaget, 1970; Perry, 1970; Loveninger, 1976; and Kholberg, 1976). Cognitive - developmental theories focus on orderly changes in reasoning patterns. Reasoning patterns are constructs which act as filters through which an individual ascribes meaning to an event, issue or problem. Furthermore, Touchton, Wertheimer, Cornfeld and Harrison (1977) noted the variables important to developmental change:

* Openness to Alternatives Perspectives - respect for others opinions and thoughts.

* Analysis - the ability to see more than one perspective.

* Ability to assume Responsibility - the ability to accept consequences for decisions.

* World-view - how an individual discerns his world.

* Semantic Structure - communication styles and thought patterns.

* Self Processes - objective assessment of self.

* Interpersonal view

The individual act with more complexities within his (her)world as variables are integrated.

How Development Occurs

Agents of Change

Adaption is the process by which development evolves. The adaption process is divided into two complimentary parts, assimilation and accommodation. Through this dual process of adaption, the individual creates new structures to deal effectively with his environment. In the process of assimilation the individual actively incorporates features of the external world into his existing structures. The inculcation of present structures into existing structures helps the individual to achieve equilibrium "Cognitive Consistency," a state of balance between the cognitive system and the demands upon the ability to compensate through action or mental operations for environmental changes without dismantling underlying structure. However, if the "fit" is not perfect, conflict arises, "Cognitive Dissonance." Cognitive dissonance or movement to complexity, is an uncomfortable state. Therefore, the individual in the state of dis equilibration is motivated to reduce the dissonance by revising conflicting beliefs or by distorting the new idea (Piaget, 1952). A new stimulus or (challenge) forces a reorganization of the current thought pattern. Vygotskyian theory (Kozulin, 1990) challenges the assumption that cognitive development is the individual construction of an internal mental construct; instead, cognitive abilities are formed and developed from interaction with the social environment, inter-psychological before they become internalized and intra-psychological. This internal battle between cognitive consistency and cognitive dissonance could have polar effects-destructive as well as constructive. Therefore, it is necessary to have supportive resources available to sustain the individual through induced crises. Through this process more complex and adequate ways of reasoning are formed.

Components of Development

Challenge

A challenge is an experience or event that threatens an individual's accomplishment of achievement tasks, self esteem, or interpersonal relationships. Challenges include experiences and events termed as developmental tasks, issues, impasses, transitions, stressors, crises or life experiences. Moreover, a challenge is developmentally extraneous if the individual lacks the skills to endure the challenge.

Support

Support is defined as available resources within the assistance for the coping process. Cutrona & Russell, (1987) classified resources into three domains which are essential to student development. They are both affective and cognitive, such as structural support as measured by instructor accessibility, guidance and information. Personal support, the availability of a person with whom one can discuss problems, share feelings and disclose worries when necessary. Instrumental support, as measured by an available individual to provide assistance with transportation, school work, and last finances.

Challenge and Support Environmental-Fit Model

Development proceeds most favorably when sufficient demands, challenges and threats are perceived by the individual and fear of being overwhelmed by them is minimized by both external support and inner coherence. Change in cognitive structures is possible through interaction with the environment. As learners encounter something slightly different in the environment, a process for understanding or adapting the new to the old is set in motion.

Within the environmental-fit model displayed in Figure 2, contextual factors place the learner at risk of cognitive stagnation, regression or maturity when such contexts interfere with the learner's ability to assimilate/accommodate new constructs. Within this model, a balance between challenge and support are identified as crucial to cognitive maturity. The underlying assumption is that an "ecological balance or dynamic equilibrium" between tasks demands and "psychological nutrients" are most conducive for growth (Vygotsky, 1977).

[Figure 2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

Environment "A" shows an overly challenged environment retards cognitive maturity. The model shows how the cognitive dissonance zone of proximal development range shrinks and moves downward when the challenge is developmentally inappropriate. The learner is in a state of antitheses as a result of deficient inner coherence. Vygotsky, (1978) would state that this student has not established the Second Signal System that mediation between self and the world of physical stimulation so that he can react in terms of his own symbolic conception of reality. Moreover, Vygotskian theory would describe the individual as driven by the dominance of stimulus-response conditioning of the classical Pavlovian type. Therefore, the learner would have adaption difficulty. The individual would tend to escape the environment and become polarized into "we-they" and "blame," or become apathetically uninvolved if they had to stay in the environment.

On the otherhand, environment "B" shows that an under challenged over supportive environment stagnates cognitive maturity. The cognitive dissonance range returns to normal; creating in the individual a form of elitism, "I'm better than you attitude." However, environment "C" shows that a balanced environment, a fit between challenge and support promotes cognitive maturity. There is stress which causes cognitive dissonance, but the learner is able to cope because the emotional and structural support is present within the environment to sustain the stimulus, thus provoking thought and promoting development. This process of restoring equilibration involves assessing where the student is, using the information as a starting point, and then gradually employing more complex methods of instruction and assignments with sufficient environmental support.

Student Development

Some researchers equate student development with providing a rich environment productive of growth. However, in an effort to eliminate concerns about a definition not grounded in developmental theory, Drum's (1977) definition will serve as the basis for this paper. The definition states:

   Student development is a process in which an individual undergoes a number
   of changes toward more complex behavior, that result from mastering the
   increasing demanding challenges of life. These changes toward more complex
   behavior often culminate in the individual transforming to a higher
   developmental position which results in his/ her viewing people, events,
   and things in fundamentally different ways p.#6.

Moreover, a wide variety of developmental theories state that the underlying assumptions of development are:

* Growth and development take place in stages. Growth moves toward more complexity, internal integration, and finer discrimination. Though development advances, it regresses as well and stabilization does occur.

* Each stage of development is integrated into the next. Development seems to be characterized by a gradual blending of one stage into the next, with small units of growth and change fusing to provide the supportive base for transformation to a higher level.

Each individual develops in a direction that is unique. This unique development occurs because of quantitative changes, such as; (a) shifts in an existing value or belief, and (b) the ability to use more data in decision making. These are the important building blocks on which the more qualitative (stage) changes are built.

Cognitive Stage Theory: William Perry

Perry's theory suggests that cognitive progress in college students shifts from the simplest stage of cognition-dualism to the highest stage of cognition-commitment. William Perry in his cognitive stage development theory describes how students move from a low level of reasoning and comprehension to a higher level of cognition (Stonewater, 1984). The theory focuses on the student's internal cognitive structure. These structures are assumptions which act as filters dictating how individuals perceive, organize and evaluate events in their environment and how they will cope with those events.

Perry developed his theory of "intellectual and ethical" development after many years of working with and interviewing Harvard students. He describes nine positions along a hierarchical continuum, but for the purpose of clarity and brevity, only four major categories that contain those nine positions will be described here. Perry's theory, like other cognitive stage developmental theories, describes how students progress through complex stages of reasoning, thinking and deriving meaning from their experiences. The lowest level exhibits an almost total dependence on authorities to make decisions for them. At the highest level, relativism, the individual adapts an "everybody for themselves" philosophy. The final level of commitment has a balance between dependence and autonomy (Widdick, 1977). Transformation from duality reasoning (right-wrong) to multiplicity reasoning (flexibility) is as a result of the accumulation of a wide range of fewer dramatic changes, which are the results of participation in various interventions such as academic studies, student activities, and/or dormitory living (Morril, Hurst, & Oetting, 1980). Perry's scheme is central to what the college experience is about and opens the path for relating other schemes of personality development to it. Perry's theory is the recipe for instructors when planning instruction which foster cognitive develop.

Dualism is the lowest cognitive stage. Students' worldview is absolute, rightwrong, black-white in their cognitive processes. Their use of available data is inadequate and their problem solving skills are limited. Dualists view authority as the reservoir of knowledge. Their locus of control is external. They seek external rather than internal rewards and right is largely determined by the expectations of those opinions they value. Students search of the "one right way to be," "shoulds" guide behavior. Students at the dualistic stage are concerned with their identity, personal appearance, and developing initial competence and a sense of autonomy. They are conformists and have a low tolerance of people's perspectives which are different from their own.

Multiplicity is an expansive stage of cognitive development in that students no longer see the world in right-wrong terms exclusively. Rather, at this stage students realize that there is more than one "right" answer or more than one way to view issues. An open and flexible style of relating to knowledge, ideas and concepts is adopted. There is also a partial acceptance of responsibility by the student. However, students remain concerned with identity and independence or autonomy. In later stages of multiplicity, recognition of different points of view is manifested in a "do your own thing" approach, i.e., if we don't know the right answer, then one idea is as good as another. The locus of control is still outside the individual.

Relativism brings fundamental shifts in cognitive skills. Students now have the capability to think in relativistic or contextual terms. Their locus of control is within themselves. Moreover, students have the ability to reason on the basis of a set of assumptions, and are able to shift their arguments on the basis of different assumptions. Self is now the motivational force in decision making and the instructor is the helper rather than the authority. Students can now realize that there are no right answers in many areas. They view right as determined by both expectations of others and some kind of internal motivation. They are cognizant of multiple perspectives and possess the where with all to reason relativistically about those perspectives. Relationships with authority are changed significantly. Though students look to authority for guidance, they recognize their analytic fortitude.

Commitment in Relativism is the final stage of cognitive development according to William Perry. It is in this stage that cognition shifts; cognition is not a structural change as are the previous stages, but rather, qualitative through which students move in developing and living with a series of commitments, or a sense of identity. The locus of control is internal. Students now know self and seek to reach their fullest potential. Students have identified principles to which they are committed. Through these commitments, students develop a sense of reality during relativism. Students now acknowledge paradoxes and the importance of interdependent personal relationships.

Implications of Cognitive Theory for Classroom Instruction

The challenge educators are confronted with is how to advance concept to application under the constraints and day-to-day realities of the classroom. Research suggests that a balance between challenge and support can be achieved through an adjustment in instruction. Optimal instructional environment consists of four variables essential to cognitive development; which are identified as: structure, personalism, events, and tasks (Knefelkamp, 1974; Widick, 1975).

Further research suggests that an equilibrium between challenge and support within the learning environment induces cognitive growth and stage development. The paradigm in Figure 5 denotes the complimentary balance for dualistic students to achieve confidence within the classroom environment. The instructor sets the stage for cognitive development in the classroom environment. That is, within the classroom, the instructor presents a precise procedural description which serves as a medium of interaction between instructor and student. The instructor cultivates this developmental environment by being both physically and psychologically accessible to the student. The physical and psychological accessibility is exhibited by announced office ours, talking with students and a receptive attitude. Moreover, the instructor must have structure within the classroom-syllabus, sound learning experiences, varied instructional styles and scholarly presentations. Thus both instruction and collaboration lead the student to new developmental levels.

[Figure 5 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

Summary and Implications

Within this paper a review of cognitive developmental theory is stated and the implications for the classroom. The conclusion about cognitive development is that it is not the result of a single cause.

The higher forms of human intercourse are possible only because man's thought reflects conceptualized actuality (Vygotsky, 1962). Furthermore, research explains how cognitive development is as a result of heredity interacting with environment time. Inheredited cognition can be nurtured or stagnated depending on the type, amount and quality of the environmental engagement when those encounters occur. Cognitive development requires appropriate levels of support and challenge within the environment. Developmental theories provide an excellent framework for designing, developing and implementing ways to facilitate higher levels of cognitive maturity within the environment.

Theory can increase the understanding of administrators and educators about student stage development, thus aiding in the cognitive growth process of students. While a somewhat superficial awareness of Perry's Cognitive Theory, Piaget's Cognitive Theory and Vygotsky"s Cognitive Theory can by no means solve communication problems between educators and students nor immediately provide a magical comprehension of the work involved in cognitive development. Perhaps, it can be a useful tool to administrators and educators.

[Figures 1, 3-4 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

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Jill M. Thompson, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, School Counseling, University of Wisconsin-Stout.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Jill M. Thompson, Assistant Professor, School Counseling, University of Wiscnosin-Stout, Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751-0790.