Engaging primary students: learning resource centers.

Instead of simply pushing groups of children through a set curriculum, many teachers are now looking to use developmentally appropriate techniques.

Imagine a kindergartner planning and constructing a model airplane and then working hard to sound out the spelling of, "This is a plane. I made it out of tubes," instead of filling out letter-of-the-day worksheets. Imagine a 1st-grader devouting Ramona and Her Father (Cleary, 1975) and then asking what else Beverly Cleary has written, instead of being limited by what the others in his group are ready to read. Imagine a 2nd-grader selecting a type of bird to research, creating a life-size model, and writing a report detailing what she has learned, instead of answering fill-in-the-blank questions about eagles as part of the science theme for February.

The Evolution of ideas in Education

For many years, teachers followed the notion that knowledge was something to be transmitted to students, and so they relied on teaching methods that treated children as passive learners. Education meant transferring knowledge and skills from the expert teacher to the naive student. Dewey (1938) and Piaget (1948), however, both believed that children actively construct their knowledge of the world. Consequently, more and more teachers began treating children as active learners, creating environments that support meaningful, hands-on learning (Heuwinkel, 1996).

Instead of simply pushing groups of children through a set curriculum, many teachers are now looking to use developmentally appropriate techniques (Bredekamp & Coppie, 1997). In doing so, teachers keep in mind general expectations for the whole group, and work to find appropriate challenges for each individual. Learning becomes an interactive process. In addition, teachers want their students to develop solid skills that can be applied in many different ways. Their goal is education for understanding (Gardner, 1991), rather than acquisition of skills that can be used only in the narrow context in which they were learned. In short, many teachers are becoming facilitators of learning, rather than transmitters of facts and formulas.

High Expectations

As teachers work on making education more child-centered, they are faced with very high expectations. Administrators and parents expect children in the early primary grades to master reading, writing, and mathematics skills, as well as skills in other subject areas. Teachers attempting to implement school, district, or national standards for kindergarten through 3rd grade face a daunting task when considering how to do so in a developmentally appropriate manner. Feeling pressure to cover the curriculum, they often rely on the familiar teacher-directed methods that they themselves experienced (Gardner, 1996). New techniques that support active learning, while allowing for real accountability, are needed to supplement or replace the old ones.

Learning Resource Centers

Learning resource centers are one method for supporting meaningful learning in primary classrooms (Sloane & Budde, 1995). A center is an area in the classroom where students find authentic materials useful for studying a particular subject. A math center in a 1st-grade classroom, for example, may contain a variety of materials that support hands-on, concrete mathematical activities (e.g., pattern blocks, math cubes, geo-boards, and base ten blocks). The materials are not put away, only to be used when the teacher brings them out, but rather are organized and accessible any time the children work in that center.

Center-based classrooms contain specific centers that are always available; examples include-reading, writing and publishing, and math centers. Construction centers with materials for sewing, woodworking, and building also can become permanent fixtures. Centers organized around topics that children are studying in science, social studies, or the fine arts will change throughout the year as the study topics change. A teacher just beginning to use this approach might want to use it in a limited way, as a supplement to other learning activities. The more classroom time that teachers can devote to centers, however, the better that children will be able to take advantage of centers' unique learning environments (Patton & Mercer, 1996).

Back to the Curriculum

How, then, does a teacher set up a center-based classroom that is developmentally appropriate, and that guarantees the children will learn what is expected for their grade level? Once she has collected and organized materials (see Patton & Mercer, 1996, for more information on center design), how does the teacher structure the children's time so that they are getting the most out of the available resources? The key to children's effective use of learning resource centers lies in the following three areas: assessment, planning, and documentation.

Assessing Students

Assessment answers the question, "What is appropriate for each child to learn while working in centers?" Through formal assessment and informal observation, the teacher builds a store of knowledge about each child. Where is the child in the process of learning to read? How comfortable is she with expressing ideas in writing? Has she started adding by carrying numbers yet? Every child's strengths, weaknesses, and interests are unique. In order to challenge them appropriately, a teacher needs to know each one as an individual learner. For example, 1st-graders' levels of reading proficiency often vary widely. Many are beginners, but some have mastered basic text. Still others are ready to read chapter books. Students can more easily learn to read when they are challenged by the right type of material for their individual abilities, rather than when they all have to read the same book. Building detailed knowledge about the children takes time, effort, and documentation, but it is necessary and worthwhile. Much has been written about the development and use of authentic assessments (Hills, 1992). The National Association for the Education of Young Children's guidelines (Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992) are a good place to start. Once a teacher is familiar with each student's mastery of certain knowledge and skills, she is ready to help them make the connection between what to learn next and the materials in the centers. This connection is established through planning.

Planning

Planning answers the question, "What will students do when working in learning resource centers?" During planning periods a teacher helps each child choose activities that are appropriate for his or her grade level. Rather than simply turning students loose with the materials, the teacher uses what she learned about the children through the assessment process, along with her knowledge of curriculum and standards, to guide what students will be learning and how that learning will take place. She looks for knowledge and skills that are in each child's zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978) - those skills that children have not yet mastered, but are ready to develop with assistance. These skills form the basis of the children's plans. A kindergartner who has learned to recognize most of the letters of the alphabet, for example, is probably ready to begin learning consonant letter sounds. This skill is in his zone of proximal development and would be appropriate to include in a plan.

* Learning Goals. Children will need a plan to guide their activities if they are going to spend a significant amount of class time in centers. Therefore, a teacher should meet with each student in order to decide what to study, learn, and practice. The teacher and student first choose the learning goals during an individual conference. As a facilitator of learning, the teacher does not make all of the choices, but instead involves the child in the decision process. The teacher asks what the child is interested in learning next, suggesting topics that the child might find interesting or skills that are appropriate to practice. Above all, the teacher reassures the child that the choices he or she makes are the right ones. Together, they discuss options for learning goals, each person contributing to what will finally be included in the child's plan. Neither generates all of the ideas, nor is responsible for making all of the decisions. Instead, both are actively involved in the goal-setting process (see Figure 1).

The younger the children are, or the less practiced at selecting learning goals, the more assistance they will need. A teacher can facilitate goal setting by first asking a child to think about what he would like to do during center time. "Build with blocks," a kindergartner might say. Next, the teacher and child think about what the child might learn from that activity. He might be interested in castles and want to build one to learn about their parts. He might want to build the tallest tower possible and practice counting the blocks he used. One way to help young children become familiar with the goal-setting process is to start with a concrete activity and then progress to thinking about learning goals.

As the children get more practiced, a teacher can begin suggesting general goals that are easy for the children to understand and remember. "Practice reading," for example, is a goal that would be appropriate for some kindergartners and most 1st-graders. As they continue to gain experience, children often think of things they want to study or practice. One 1st-grader, just after completing math assessments, told her teacher she remembered being asked to count by 2s. "I can't do that, and I want to learn that count by 2s thing," she said. By listening to children's ideas and preferences, the teacher gives them opportunities to take some of the responsibility for their learning. At the same time, he or she guides their choices so that they will always be developing new knowledge and skills.

All of the decisions made during a conference need to be recorded so that they will not be forgotten. See Figure 2 for a sample plan that can be filled in during a conference and then kept someplace where both the teacher and student can refer to it easily. Of course, some things children might never choose to learn, if left entirely on their own. Teachers should expect everyone to cover certain aspects of the curriculum during the course of the school year. If it is important for a child to work on a particular topic at a particular time, tell him and then give him some choice in the decision about how to conduct that learning.

* Learning Activities. What materials will the child use? What will he do with them? Once a learning goal is established, the teacher and student need to decide how to accomplish it (see Figure 2). Again, the teacher offers ideas for center activities, while emphasizing that each choice is appropriate. In the beginning, children do not always know how to go about learning particular concepts. Teachers can offer several possibilities for achieving learning goals and help children choose appropriate activities. To fulfill the goal of "practice adding," for example, a kindergartner could work with blocks, move a counter up and down a number line, or draw pictures of simple problems. The teacher would suggest these activities and then let the child choose which one will go on her plan.

As they gain experience working in centers, children will generate many more ideas about specific activities. They become empowered by the chance to participate in decisions about what they will be doing, and to see opportunities for learning everywhere in the classroom. One 2nd-grader's experience early in the school year illustrated this development. Having been in a center-based 1st-grade classroom, she was familiar with the general format of planning activities. During center time, however, her teacher observed her wandering around the classroom. Thinking she needed help getting started with her chosen activity, the teacher approached her and inquired about what she was doing. "I am looking," she said, "around the room to see what I can learn about this year."

If children will be working in centers for only short periods of time, a teacher can immediately begin helping children choose learning activities one day at a time. Here again, it is important that both the teacher and the students have input in selecting what they will do while using centers. Children should work on skills and subjects that they are interested in and that afford the right level of challenge.

* Sign-Up Time. Once planning is completed, children may pick activities to do each day from among their plans. These selections take place during a daily sign-up period. During sign-up time, a kindergarten or 1st-grade teacher asks each child what he or she would like to do during the next center time. Together, they look at the child's plan (the teacher reads it, if necessary). "I see you finished the card you were making for your room," a teacher might say. "What do you want to do tomorrow - build a castle with blocks or practice measuring at the water table?" If the child has started an activity but has not had sufficient time to complete it, she can simply sign up for it again. As each child makes selections, the teacher records them on an activity sheet (see Figure 3). When the children arrive the next day, the activity sheet is displayed so they can refer to it before beginning center time. One goal per day, written or represented by a picture, is usually sufficient for most kindergartners. First-graders will be able to accomplish more and can handle more of an academic focus.

During sign-up time, 2nd- and 3rd-graders usually are able to refer to their plans, select activities, and write their selections down themselves (see Figure 3). Second- and 3rd-graders' activities often span several days because these students are capable of longer and more complex projects. The teacher helps keep track of what they have finished and which activities still need more work. As long as time permits, 2nd- and 3rd-graders are able to handle one math activity, one reading activity, and one writing activity each day.

* Planning Is an Investment. Planning takes time and effort; it is truly an investment once the teacher begins holding conferences with each student and helping to select activities each day. It is worthwhile, however, because the students reap the benefits. Involving them in determining what they will study, which often is regarded as being solely the teacher's job, gives them a chance to begin taking responsibility for their learning. They become empowered by the opportunity to make meaningful decisions and carry them out. Children are highly motivated to do their selected activities, because those activities are based on their interests. With the teacher's guidance, they become more and more familiar with the curriculum, making the planning process faster and easier. Ultimately, the children develop lifelong learning skills that are more than worth the time and effort involved.

* Children and Centers in Action. During center time, plans come to life. Children work towards their goals, using the center materials. Each is actively engaged in a challenging and interesting task. Teachers circulate around the classroom, helping children achieve their goals. All over the classroom, children are reading, writing, researching, constructing, investigating, experimenting, practicing, and discovering. Their natural desire to construct knowledge about the world around them is supported and trained, rather than thwarted. They develop reading, writing, and math skills in meaningful contexts, built from their own interests and abilities. Learning about one thing often leads to questions about a new topic, or provides the opportunity for a teacher to introduce a new skill. New ideas for learning lead to new goals for the children's next plans.

Documenting Progress

Documentation answers the question, "What did students learn while working in centers?" Since the children are not all doing the same thing at the same time in the same way, the teacher needs a system for documenting what each student has accomplished. See Figure 4 for an example of a curriculum summary used to document the skills and knowledge that K-3 students are developing and have mastered. A date is filled in next to each item; pencil is used to mark a "d" for developing skills, and a pen to mark those skills a child has mastered. Teachers can use this checklist to track and share each child's progress. They also may refer to curriculum summaries during planning conferences, generating learning goals by sharing with children various items that they have not yet completed. From portfolios with pictures and work samples to developmentally appropriate progress reports, many other methods of documenting and reporting students' knowledge have been developed (see Guskey, 1996, for additional possibilities). Again, consider involving the children in deciding what to keep for a portfolio, what to send home, and what to display in the classroom.

Exciting Results

Centers in primary classrooms produce wonderful and exciting results. Children not only discover, practice, and master the knowledge and skills expected of them, but also do so with real understanding. They see school as an interesting and exciting place to be, a place that has meaning in their lives. They develop strong senses of themselves as learners and take real responsibility for their learning. When asked how they saw school (see Figure 5), the responses from two groups of children from center-based classrooms reveal just how powerful this type of learning can be.

Center-based classrooms are ideal environments for implementing developmentally appropriate practice with primary students. They provide the setting for teachers to act as true facilitators of learning. Children are treated as individuals and learn at their own pace through activities that tap their interests. As teachers take them through the process of assessment, planning, and documenting, the children develop habits of learning that last a lifetime.

References

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Bredekamp, S., & Rosegrant, T. (Eds.). (1992). Reaching potentials: Appropriate curriculum and assessment for young children (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Cleary, B. (1975). Ramona and her father. New York: Dell Publishing.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan.

Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1996, October). Education for understanding: How teachers and leaders address the unschooled mind. Paper presented at the State Superintendent Premier Speaker Series, Chicago, IL.

Guskey, T. (1996). Communicating student learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Heuwinkel, M. (1996). New ways of learning = new ways of teaching. Childhood Education, 73, 27-31.

Hills, T. (1992). Reaching potentials through appropriate assessment. In S. Bredekamp & T. Rosegrant (Eds.), Reaching potentials: Appropriate curriculum and assessment for young children (Vol. 1, pp. 43-63). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Patton, M. M., & Mercer, J. (1996). "Hey! Where's the toys?" Play and literacy in 1st grade. Childhood Education, 73, 10-16.

Piaget, J. (1948). To understand is to invent. New York: Viking.

Sloane, M., & Budde, B. (1995, January). Centers as resources for learning in the primary classroom. Paper presented at the National Association for the Education of Young Children Annual Conference, Washington, DC.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Marie W. Sloane is an educational consultant and author, Lincolshire, Illinois.