Emotional intelligence in the classroom.

Abstract

Due to the increase of students with learning disabilities, emotional disorders and behavior disorders, there are more students in the classroom lacking self-control and having higher frustration levels. This article addresses the importance of Emotional Intelligence and the integration of it in the classroom in order to help these students cope with their everyday lives. The importance of these skills, which contribute to success in life and the ability for special education students to learn them, are discussed in research presented in this article. Finally, specific techniques for implementation in the classroom are presented.

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The special education population is increasing especially in the areas of specific learning disabilities, health impairments and students with emotional disturbances ... the number of students with specific learning disabilities has more than doubled since the 1979-80 academic year (Whorton, Siders Fowler and Naylor, 2000, p. 290). There is also the issue in special education due to Public Law 94-142, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which creates the mandate to educate these students in the least restrictive environment (McLeskey, Henry and Axelrod, 1999, p.55). The combination of the increase of students and the need to provide services in the least restrictive environment creates a complex problem for teachers in classroom management and social interactions.

Emotional Disturbance (ED) is the term used in Federal law and regulations to describe those receiving special education services for emotional and behavioral disorders as taken from the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood (LaRocque, Brown & Johnson, 2001, p.60). These children are at risk for traumatic stress disorder, mood disorder and anxiety disorder. Students with learning disabilities have normal or potential normal intelligence but manifest disabilities of perceptual, conceptual or coordinative nature (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2001). This disability includes those with ADHD. Those students with this specific disability can "exhibit substantial social competence deficits and difficulties in interpersonal relationships" (Gresham, Sugai & Hornet, 2001, p.331).

Students with emotional disturbances and learning disabilities can lack self-esteem, display poor social skills and experience troublesome interpersonal relationships with peers and and with authority. They are prone to impulsivity and immediate gratification, making classroom interactions quite difficult. Their deficiencies in academic performance compound the problem raising the level of frustration for student and teacher. The increased presence of students with disabilities coupled with the current laws for servicing their needs produces a problem for teachers in classroom management. These are students with specific academic needs but also who lack coping skills and social skills for productive classroom interaction. This dilemma challenges both the special education and general education teacher.

Goleman (1995) investigates emotional intelligence as a different type of knowledge. Emotional intelligence is the ability to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one's moods and to empathize (Goleman, 1995, p.34).

   Emotional intelligence is a different way of being smart, it includes
   knowing what your feelings are and using your feelings to make good
   decisions in life. It's being able to manage distressing moods well and
   control impulses. It's being motivated and remaining hopeful and optimistic
   when you have setbacks in working towards goals. It's empathy; knowing what
   the people around you are feeling. And it's social-skills-getting along
   well with other people, managing emotions in relationships, being able to
   persuade or lead others (Goleman, 1996, p.6).

Social skills is one element of emotional intelligence (Pool, 1997). Social skills instruction targets very specific skills and try to improve behaviors and enable emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's own thinking and action (Mayer & Salovey, 1990, p.433). Howard Gardner (1983) similarly describes this essence of intelligence with the Interpersonal and Intrapersonal intelligences of his Multiple Intelligence Theory. Gardner (1983) states that the Interpersonal intelligence is to know oneself and the Intrapersonal is to know others. "The personal intelligences amount to information-processing capacities- one directed inward, the other outward ... and is inalienable a part of the human condition as is the capacity to know objects or sounds ..." (Gardner, 1983, p.243). "A person with good interpersonal intelligence has a viable and effective model of himself or herself" (Gardner, 1993, p.25). This is essential for modern daily living.

The importance of these impulse-controlling skills is demonstrated in the Marshmallow Test research begun by Walter Mischel in the 1960's at Stanford University (Goleman, 1995). Two separate groups of four year olds were presented the challenge to either resist or succumb to the impulse to take the marshmallow when instructed not to. "To be able to delay immediate satisfaction for the sake of future consequences has long been considered an essential achievement of human development" (Shoda, Mischel & Peak, 1990, p.978). This study tested 4 year olds at a preschool on the campus of Stanford University. The preschoolers were instructed to wait for their marshmallow reward as the experimenter left the room. During the study there were variations of the self-imposed delay of gratification situations. Follow-up research was done when these students were older in adolescence and then in high school. As adolescents, those who had resisted temptation were more socially competent, took more initiative, were trustworthy and capable of pursuing long-term goals. This was tested by administering the Adolescent Coping Questionnaire and the California Child Q- Set to the participants' parents. As high school students, those who were able to delay their impulse had a greater intellectual potential (Shoda, Mischel & Peake, 1990). This was correlated with SAT verbal and quantitative scores. It is important to note that the subjects in this study were middle class preschool children on Stanford's campus. There was also stability in the subject's family and immediate environment, thus presenting no other societal distractor.

Maclean (1997) worked on research with the brain and emotion, identifying the limbic system as the central site for emotion in the brain. This system plays an important role in regulating feelings (Greenberg & Snell, 1997, p.99). The amygdala is the brain structure that has been referred to as the primary limbic structure involved in the neurobiology of the emotion. The frontal lobes are another brain area critically involved in emotion regulation. (Greenberg & Snell in Salovey & Sluyter, 1997, p. 100-101). Physiologically, the frontal lobes are important in the development of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Though this child may be impaired emotionally, they may experience great accomplishments in other areas that utilize other intelligences. Goleman (1996) states that another important factor of emotional intelligence is the physiology of the brain and the relationship between the emotional brain and the brain's executive areas. The prefrontal lobes are where working memory resides and all learning is in working memory. "The good news about emotional intelligence is that it is virtually all learned" (O'Neil, 1996, p, 7).

The best data upholding this comes from Jerome Kagan in his research on shyness in infants and toddlers. Early signs of shyness were found in a group of infants and later studied, as they were toddlers. These infants exhibited behaviors such as over sensitivity, anxiety in social situations and were finicky eaters. The other group of children was bold and outgoing.

   About two of every ten Caucasian infants inherit a physiology that biases
   them to be both aroused and distressed by stimulation early in the first
   year and initially avoidant of unfamiliarity in the second and third years.
   About four of ten infants inherit a physiology that permits them to be
   relaxed at four months and relatively fearless in early childhood (Kagan,
   1994, p. 261).

Kagan (1994) believes that the difference between these two types of children lies in the excitability of a neural circuit centered on the amygdala. He states that those prone to fearfulness are born with a neurochemistry that makes the circuit easily aroused and those who are bold and fearless have a much stronger threshold for amygdala arousal.

   The encouraging news from Kagan's studies is that not all fearful infants
   grow up hanging back from life- temperament is not destiny. The over
   excitable amygdala can be tamed, with the right experiences. What makes the
   difference are the emotional lessons and responses children learn as they
   grow (Goleman, 1995, p.221).

"Genes are not omnipotent, however, and they necessarily share power with experience" (Kagan, 1994, p. 262). This could been seen in the study when later mothers of one year olds were more lenient and indirect in setting limits than the mothers who were emphatic on setting rules. The firmness aided in reducing fearfulness and the children learned to deal with uncertainty and respond to changing situations. The leniency did not serve the children well. Those children who could cope with rules were more competent emotionally. An important issue of Kagan's (1994) studies is that it was specifically done with "Caucasian children from relatively secure, initially intact families. This is reminiscent of the Shoda, Mischel and Peake (1990) research referring to the societal stressors for those children of disadvantaged backgrounds.

The theories of Goleman (1995), Gardner (1993), Mayer & Salovey (1990), and the research of Kagan (1994) all imply the need to address the development of emotional intelligence of students in the classroom. Emotional intelligence can be learned and it is a strong criterion for a person's measure of success. It is coping with anger, addressing life's turmoils and self-efficacy that can predict success and ultimately, a more productive life. Although emotional skills begin in the home with good parent-child interactions sometimes parents are unable to provide this for their children due to their own poor emotional states (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p. 19). This presents a dilemma for the schools, whether or not they help students in social and emotional skills. Children who present more challenges, despite whatever specific circumstances, should also be given the opportunity for the development of emotional intelligence. The school must administer yet another program to aid the development of the whole child. It is true that teachers are already faced with the challenges of interpreting curriculum, producing student's achievements on standardized tests and managing a class full of students with different academic and emotional needs. Increases in school violence mirror the increasing emotional needs of students. The increasing societal problems of poverty, drugs, disease, sexual and child abuse also impact our students. Dedicated teachers and school districts committed to their students' needs can not ignore these problems. To get these students to their next academic level, we must meet them where they are and give them skills and resources to cope with stressors so they will then be better able to attend to academics. (De Falco, 1997, p.32-33). Teachers must perform the Herculean task of imparting knowledge, yet keeping all students safe and happy even though their home life might be very different. Traditional teacher education programs do not prepare teachers for the emotional climate of the classroom. A good teacher can not walk into a classroom and ignore the emotional literacy of their students. Academics and emotional literacy go hand in hand.

   This lack of preparation for managing students' stressors and emotions
   leads teachers to a) over represent or under represent their students in
   special education programs, b) use gut feelings and perceptions to evaluate
   and place students, and/or c) display blindness to human differences. When
   all these things happen, students' existing problems are not solved and
   unintended problems are created in the teaching-learning process. (Obiakor,
   2001, p.322)

Obiakor (2001) prescribes a model for fostering emotional intelligence in the classroom. His model can be used in regular and special education programs. It includes schools and the teacher education programs. In the program Obiakor (2001) includes Partnership Programs, Mentorship Programs, Social Skills Programs and Self-Management Programs. These would all be integrated in Teacher Preparation Programs. There would be Preservice and Inservice Training for Teachers. Partnership Programs should be adopted to enhance parental and community involvement. Collaborative relationships encourage the development of cooperative behaviors- to work together and find peaceful solutions for problems. The use of cooperative learning in the classroom teaches students the importance of teamwork. Mentorship programs are important for providing students with positive role models and boosts self-esteem. Social skills programs are important for remediation of inappropriate behaviors. These programs utilize modeling, role-playing and performance feedback. The New Haven, CT school district administers a comprehensive Social Development program teaching a variety of skills. The curriculum includes social/emotional competencies for each grade level including such items as impulse control, anger management, empathy, recognizing attributes in people, self-monitoring and decision making among others (Salovey and Mayer, 1997). Another program is called "Self Science" and it is taught by the Nueva School in Hillsborough, CA. This program demonstrates the efficacy of a curriculum that strives to enhance self-awareness, social interaction and problem-solving skills."(Vargo, 1997, p. 120).

   CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Literacy) is an
   international organization founded in 1994 to establish social and
   emotional learning as an essential part of learning from preschool to high
   school. Its goals are: 1) to advance the science of SEL (Social-Emotional
   learning), 2) to translate this scientific knowledge into effective school
   practices, 3) to disseminate information about scientifically sound SEL
   educational strategies and practices, 4) to enhance training so that
   educators effectively implement high quality SEL programs, and 5) to
   network and collaborate with scientists, educators, advocates, policy
   makers, and interested citizens to increase coordination of SEL efforts
   (Payton, Wardlaw, Graczyk, Bloodworth, Tompsett & Weissberg, 2000, p.180).

Daniel Goleman, author of Emotional Intelligence, and philanthropist Eileen Rockefeller Growwald, founded this organization. Since CASEL finds no program that adequately captures all the elements, it suggests SEL competencies to combine elements. These competencies include awareness of self and others, positive attitudes and values, responsible decision making and social interaction skills (Payton and others, 2000).

Another important part of classroom curriculum should be Self-Management programs that aid the student in their own behavior management (Obiakor, 2001). These programs make students responsible and accountable for their actions. They learn to self-regulate their behaviors and find solutions. The aim of these programs is to develop intrinsic motivation for positive and socially acceptable behaviors. They are developing their emotional intelligence. Obiakor (2001) states that emotional intelligence should be given the same respect as general intelligence and both attributes be used to evaluate a student.

The problem associated with teaching emotional intelligence in the classroom is related to the proper means of instruction. "Social skills training (SST) is a popular intervention for students with high-incidence disabilities" (Gresham, Sugai & Homer, 2001, 332). The question has been whether these programs are successful. Gresham, Sugai & Horner (2001) discuss narrative and quantitative reviews of Social skills programs. There are several reasons for weak results, which include the following: a) training must be more frequent and intense and b) treatment must be directly linked, to the student's deficits. The new behaviors taught need to produce more immediate reinforcers than the old behaviors if the student is to use them,. This has not been the case and the student adheres to problem behaviors because they produce the quickest response. Many of these programs have been pullout programs or have run for a specific amount of time. This adds to their unsuccessful results.

Those children who are identified with behavior problems as specified under IDEA (1997) are the very population who can benefit the most from the integration of emotional intelligence in the curriculum. Behaviors need to be specifically targeted for development along with the increase of self-awareness, ability to manage emotions and a display of empathy. The students must be taught the problem-solving skills to analyze their actions and realize the consequences. They must know that their actions carry specific positive or negative consequences. It is also important to create a positive tone in the classroom where interactions between teacher and students are organized democratically but with consistency. The day also needs structure because this gives these students comfort. There is the expectation that students will take personal responsibility for their behavior (Mathur & Rutherford, 1996). Incidents that take place in the classroom or other parts of the school need to be discussed and analyzed with an explanation of what appropriate behavior would be. When an incident happens, proper attention and time need to be given to discuss the situation and reach a reasonable solution. These programs must be continuous and part of the very core of the curriculum. These skills cannot be learned in a few weeks but must be woven into the students' lives. If it is integrated in the curriculum successfully, emotional intelligence can provide special students with valuable knowledge to impact the rest of their lives.

List of References

De Falco, Karol. (1997) What is emotional intelligence: educator's commentary. In Salovey, Peter & Sluyter, David J. (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: educational implications. (pp.32-34) New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Gardner, Howard. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Gardner, Howard (1993). Multiple intelligences: the theory in practice. New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Goleman, Daniel. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Greenberg, Mark & Snell, Jennie L. (1997). Brain development and emotional development: the role of teaching in organizing the frontal lobe. In Salovey, Peter & Sluyter, David J. (Eds.) Emotional development and emotional intelligence: educational implications (pp. 93-119). New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Gresham, Frank M., Sugai, George & Homer, Robert H. (2001). Interpreting outcomes of social Skills training for students with high-incidence disabilities. Exceptional Children, 67, 331-344.

Kagan, Jerome. (1994). Galen's prophecy. New York: Basic Books.

LaRocque, Michelle, Brown, Sharon, E. & Johnson, Kurt, L. (2001) Functional behavioral Assessments and intervention plans in early intervention settings. Infants and Young Children, 13, 59-68.

Mathur, S.R. & Rutherford, R.B. (1996). Is social skills training effective for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Research Issues and Needs, 22, 21-28.

Mayer, John D. & Salovey, Peter. (1990). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442

Mayer, John D. and Salovey, Peter. (1997) What is emotional intelligence? In Salovey, Peter and Sluyter, David J (eds.) Emotional development and emotional intelligence: educational implications. New York: Basic Books, Inc.

McLesky, James, Henry, Daniel & Axelrod, Michael I. (1999). Inclusion of students with learning disabilities: an examination of data from reports to Congress, 66, 55-66.

Obiakor, Festus E. (2001). Developing emotional intelligence in learners with behavioral Problems: Refocusing special education. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 321-326.

O'Neil, John. (1996). On emotional intelligence: a conversation with Daniel Goleman. Educational leadership, 54, 6-8.

Payton, John W., Wardlaw, Dana M., Graczyk, Patricia A., Bloodworth, Michelle R., Tompsett, Carolyn J. & Weissberg, Roger P.(2000). Social and emotional learning: a framework for promoting mental health and reducing risk behaviors in children and youth. Journal of School and Health, 70, 179-185.

Pool, Carolyn R. (1997). Up with emotional health. Educational Leadership, 54, 12-14.

Shoda, Yuichi, Mischel, Walter & Peake, Philip K. (1990) Predicting adolescent cognitive and Self-regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: identifying diagnostic Conditions, Developmental Psychology, November, 978-986.

Vargo, Jo-An.(1997). Teaching weaves the brain's neuron connections In Salovey, Peter and Sluyter, David J (Eds.) Emotional development and emotional intelligence: educational implications. New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Whorton, James E., Siders, James A., Fowler, Robert E. and Naylor, David L. A two-decade review of the number of students with disabilities receiving federal monies and the types of educational placements used. Education, Winter 2000, 287-297.

Dr. D'Ambrosio is a former teacher in elementary school in all grades K-8 and in special education classes for the learning disabled, and children with emotional and behavior disorders. She teaches juniors and seniors in the Teacher Education program and supervises student teachers in elementary education and special education in the Bronx, NY.