Effects of dyslexia and dyscalculia on teachers.Abstract The purpose of this research was to ascertain if teachers with dyslexia dyslexia /dys·lex·ia/ (-lek´se-ah) impairment of ability to read, spell, and write words, despite the ability to see and recognize letters.dyslex´ic dys·lex·i·a (d  s-l and dyscalculia dys·cal·cu·li·a (ds k l-ky perceive that their learning disabilities learning disabilities, in education, any of various disorders involved in understanding or using spoken or written language, including difficulties in listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic. They may affect people of average or above-average intelligence. have affected their adult lives, including their teaching. It was found that dyslexia and dyscalculia were significantly correlated with effects upon teachers' daily routines, occupational choices and psychological health/emotions. Also, dyscalculia was significantly correlated with effects on social relationships. ********** Individuals with learning disabilities such as dyslexia and dyscalculia have strengths as well as weaknesses. Some research reports that problems that individuals face as a result of learning disabilities tend to lessen when compulsory schooling ends, and these children mature into well-adjusted, emotionally healthy adults (Bruck, 1986; Reiff & Gerber, 1995; Shaywitz, 2003). However, others find that their weaknesses are often all pervasive and affect multiple areas of life (Mortimore, 2003; Poussu-Olli, 2001; Reiff & Gerber, 1995; Shaywitz, 2003). Weakness in organization, using codes (verbal or mathematical), memory, sequencing, time concepts, directionality, and multi-tasking often make home life, social life, and school life frustrating (Mortimore, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). Daily routines that come automatically to individuals without learning disabilities often demand close attention, inordinate amounts of time, and intense energy for people with learning disabilities (Ryan, 1994; Currie & Wadlington, 2002; Mortimore, 2003). Many adults with dyslexia or dyscalculia may have been told all of their lives that they are hopeless. They also may have grown up in homes where other people were struggling with learning disabilities, so home life was chaotic. These conditions can lead to frustration, anger, alienation, and lack of self-esteem (Farmer, Riddick, Sterling, 2002; Mortimore, 2003; Shaywitz, 2003). Negative experiences can result in a self-perpetuating cycle of social failures and emotional problems that lead to more negative experiences (Mortimore, 2003; Reiff & Gerber, 1995). Conversely, some individuals report that they have used their negative experiences to motivate them to succeed. Unfortunately, even these successful adults may carry around emotional baggage from their early years (Reiff & Gerber, 1995; Shaywitz, 2003). Frequently, adults indicate that their learning disabilities adversely affect their social relationships (Poussu-Olli, 2001; Reiff & Gerber, 1995; Shaywitz, 2003). Some adults indicate that they missed out on learning social skills because they were isolated in special education settings during childhood or were so busy dealing with their disabilities that they had no time for socializing. Other adults report that their weaknesses even now get in the way of normal social interactions. Many times, adults find that their learning disabilities also affect vocational choice and success (Brown, 2000; Poussu-Olli, 2001; Farmer, Riddick, & Sterling, 2002; Reiff & Gerber, 1995). Individuals sometimes feel that they must attend vocational schools rather than college and that their job opportunities are limited (Brown, 2000; Poussu-Olli, 2001). They often feel anxious about courses and training needed for certain occupations (Brown, 2000; Farmer, Riddick, & Sterling, 2002; Heaton & Mitchell, 2001). Approximately one-quarter of students with learning disabilities choose teaching as their occupation (Adelman & Vogel, 1993; Vogel & Adelman, 1997; Wertheim, Vogel, & Brulle, 1998). University students with disabilities sometimes choose education as their majors because they are familiar with the school environment and remember teachers who helped them learn and those who did not (Gerber, 1992; Gerber, Ginsberg, & Reiff, 1992; Vogel & Adelman, 1992; Wertheim, Vogel, & Brulle; 1998). Sometimes, future teachers choose a teaching specialty that allows them to avoid a weak area (e.g., if they are poor in mathematics, they teach English) (Vogel, 1997; Wadlington & Wadlington, 2006). University faculty are often concerned about how their teacher education candidates with learning disabilities will handle classrooms of their own (Wadlington & Wadlington, 2006; Wertheim, Vogel, & Brulle, 1998). Of particular interest to the authors of this manuscript are the effects of learning disabilities upon teachers' beliefs. Wadlington and Wadlington studied the beliefs of educators regarding dyslexia (2005, 2006) and dyscalculia (2006). These researchers found that the majority of educators had significant misconceptions about dyslexia and dyscalculia, but that graduate students had significantly fewer misconceptions than the other groups. Even though, the majority of the educators in this research believed that being identified as having dyslexia or dyscalculia in order to receive special services was beneficial to students, the majority of educators without learning disabilities did not believe that they taught, counseled or provided other services to students with dyslexia (2005, 2006) or dyscalculia (2006). The authors wondered if perhaps these educators without learning disabilities, themselves, did not recognize dyslexia and dyscalculia in their current or former students. Purposes of this Research One of the authors of this manuscript has dyslexia but has successfully completed his Ph.D. The other author, his mother, is a teacher educator. Both authors have a deep interest in how dyslexia and other learning disabilities affect teachers and their classrooms. Therefore, the main purpose of this research was to ascertain if teachers with dyslexia and dyscalculia perceive that their learning disabilities have affected their adult lives, including their teaching. Other purposes included to pinpoint the specific areas in life most affected and to explore the reasons behind these findings. For the purposes of this research, dyslexia was defined as a specific learning disability LD A disorder in the basic cognitive and psychological processes involved in using language or performing mathematical calculations, affecting persons of normal intelligence, and not the result of emotional disturbance or impairment of sight or hearing. Also called learning disorder. learn that affects accurate/fluent word recognition, spelling, and decoding. It is neurological in origin and unexpected in relation to intellectual functioning and school instruction (Lyon, Shawitz, & Shawitz, 2003; International Dyslexia Association, 2005). Similarly, dyscalculia was defined as a specific learning disability that affects ones' ability to do mathematics. It is neurological in origin and unexpected in relation to intellectual functioning and school instruction (Geary, 2000; Geary & Hoard, 2001; Kosc, 1974; Rourke & Conway, 1997, Sharma, 1990; Weedon, 1992). Methods and Analysis The sample consisted of 149 teachers. Of these 149 teachers, 47 were graduate students and 27 were undergraduate student teachers in their final course at a large, southern regional university. Sixty-nine subjects were teachers not enrolled in university classes, and six did not indicate their status. All participants were volunteers; subjects in university classes were solicited by instructors; graduate students also asked for volunteers within their school districts. Ages ranged from 24 to 57 with a mean age of 36; 96% of subjects were female. Seventy-six percent of the teachers worked with grades preK-5; 15% worked with grades 6-8; the remaining 9% worked with high school students. Thirty-three of the 149 participants identified themselves as having a learning disability. Of these 33 participants, 17 stated that their disability was dyslexia. Of these 17 participants, six participants indicated that they had another learning disability as well as dyslexia. Eight of the participants indicated that they thought that they had dyscalculia. Of the participants with a learning disability, only five had been formally diagnosed. Because the researchers were using self-reporting as the criteria for identification, it was assumed for the purposes of this research that students' self-diagnoses of dyslexia or dyscalculia were correct. The checklists of characteristics used for the study confirmed that these subjects had more characteristics of dyslexia or dyscalculia than other subjects. Any subjects with substantial discrepancies between the self-report and checklists were removed from this study. The dyslexia and dyscalculia instruments consisted of two questionnaires developed for this study. Each consisted of six items with a likert scale to pinpoint areas affected by participants' dyslexia or dyscatculia as well as two open-ended questions so that participants could explain and make comments. A third one-page instrument requested demographic data. In addition, subjects self-reported frequency and severity of symptoms of dyslexia and dyscalculia using a likert scale on two characteristics checklists. The data was analyzed using twelve two sample t-tests between those with moderate-to-high frequencies of dyslexia or dyscalculia symptoms (e.g., reversal of letters, problems with number order) and those with few symptoms on mean scores for differences in diverse aspects of individuals' lives. In addition, effect sizes were calculated using Cohen's d to determine the magnitude of any significant differences found. Results Quantitative Results indicated that dyslexia (with or without another learning disability) had a significant effect on participants' lives (<. 001). Parts of life significantly affected (in ranked order) were daily routines, occupational choice, and emotions/psychological health. Effect on social relationships was not significant. Cohen's d was 0.3 (a medium effect size). Results indicated that dyscalculia (with or without another learning disability) had a significant effect on participants' lives (<.001). Parts of life significantly affected (in ranked order) were daily routine, occupational choice, psychological/emotional health, and social relationships. Cohen's d was 5.6 (large effect size). Qualitative Effect on Daily Routine Regarding daily routine, organization appeared to be a big problem for students with dyslexia or dyscalculia. Comments included, "My home is cluttered;. Organizing my bills and checkbook is a nightmare. My teaching suffers because I'm unprepared sometimes," and "The multi-tasking and organization required for teaching hinders my ability to focus on lesson structure." Others had taught themselves organization skills as demonstrated by this statement "I make myself stay organized and stick to a schedule," and "I'm a compulsive list maker. This allows me to function quite well." Another typical comment was "To stay on schedule, I write everything down in the order that I need to remember them. My husband who has dyslexia talks to his tape recorder all day long. When he gets home, I help him make a list. I feel like I'm still a teacher at home." Effect on Occupational Choice Concerning occupational choices, participants' comments demonstrated why they selected or avoided certain vocational choices. Typical comments included, "I chose to work with children with dyslexia because I have dyslexia," and "I chose special education because I knew organization would be easier in smaller classes." Other revealing thoughts were "I had a hard time when I was majoring in nursing because I write slowly. I would like to do administrative work but sometimes paperwork confuses me," and "Dyscalculia has affected my career choice dramatically. I was originally in computer science. But after failing two math classes, I switched to English. Now I panic when I substitute in a math class." One teacher of special education described her struggles as follows, "In university classes, I was always afraid that we would have to read and respond to an article in class. I knew that I would never finish even reading it. I had to study intensely for the Praxis over several months and still had to have extra time to successfully complete it (the second time). I get anxious if I have to write in front of other teachers or parents, so I write things ahead of time." Positively, participants indicated that they perceived that their own dyslexia had made them better teachers. Example of comments were "The fact that I suffer from dyslexia has driven me to be the best educator I can be. It's very rewarding to see students discover the learning style that helps them the most," and "The fact that I have had problems with reading makes me a better reading teacher, I'm much more empathetic and make my class risk-free." Another remarked, "I make everything multisensory; it's the only way that I (and my students) can learn." However, one participated indicated that her dyslexia had affected her teaching skills in a different way: " I'm self-conscious in front of people. I tell my students that I am dyslexic. They help me. I tell them to double-check their grade averages in case I transposed numbers. If I stumble over a word when I read aloud, a student will say it for me; then I repeat it and keep going." Participants stated that poor mathematical abilities affected their teaching in multiple ways. Typical comments were, "Math has always been my weakest area. I don't feel comfortable helping students do math. I have trouble comprehending statistics and data," and "I never liked math as a kid. I have struggled with it all of my life. I do not like teaching math above fifth grade." Another participant wrote, "I do not feel competent when helping my sixth grader with math homework, I have to relearn concepts before I can help. I joke that I'm not sure I could pass the sixth grade state math exam." Another interesting comment was, "Because I am not good in math, I tend to explain it in words, not numbers. This helps some kids and hurts others." Effect on Psychological/Emotional Health Anxiety, avoidance, and poor self-esteem were noticeable trends in the comments about social/emotional health. Regarding dyslexia, participants reported that "I have difficulty expressing myself with strangers. I have to pause to answer. I always try to avoid reading aloud in case I can't pronounce a word" and "Emotionally, I feel inferior when people can read better than me." Concerning dyscalculia, comments included, "I avoid important life events like paying bills and balancing my checkbook. This makes me feel bad about myself," and "Math actually makes me ill. Completing this questionnaire made it all come back to me. I freeze if I have to do math. I have taken the Praxis teacher exam and choked on the math part seven times." Effects on Social Relationships Regarding dyscalculia's effect on social relationships, typical remarks included, "My friends think that anyone should be able to do math with a calculator. But my problem isn't basic facts; it is understanding the process to use. For this reason, I avoid tasks that involve math. People think that I am lazy, " and "My siblings make fun of my math abilities in front of others. It hurts. Even my husband has a hard time understanding." Other participants commented, "Others judge me harshly when I turn in my grades late, miscount field trip money, or teach a concept wrong. Some parents and peers have been upset," and "I avoid going to lunch with friends and colleagues. I always make sure that I have a credit card so I won't have to count money. But I still can't split a bill or figure the tip." Although, the effect on social relationships was not significant for dyslexia, comments indicated that emotional/psychological health sometimes affected teachers' social relationships. Statements included, "I'm extremely introverted and antisocial due to poor communication skills. I don't have good relationships with others," and "I have a hard time expressing myself orally and remembering what others say. So I'm very shy which affects social relationships and my teaching." On the other hand, one participant wrote, "As a child, I lacked confidence in educational areas because of my dyslexia, so I made up for it in my social life. I have great social skills which help me at work and in other areas." Discussion Teachers in this study indicated that dyslexia and/or dyscalculia had profound effects on their lives. Because success in daily routines requires sequencing, directionality, organization, timeliness, spatial skills, good memory and other behaviors that are sometimes difficult for adults with dyslexia or dyscalculia, it is not surprising that this was the area with which teachers had the most problems. Fortunately, comments revealed that many individuals have found ways (e.g., schedules, lists, tape recorders) to compensate for their weaknesses in this area. As expected, dyslexia and dyscalculia had greatly affected career choices. However, one wonders if these adults would have had more career choices if they had been able to overcome their anxieties. Many comments indicated panic and avoidance behaviors that are not conducive to performing well in classes and on tests. Perhaps, some of these individuals could have become better readers/writers/mathematicians if they had found ways to calm themselves. It is possible that they could have had more occupational options if their anxieties had not interfered with their learning and thwarted their ambitions. Also, considering that teaching is an occupation that requires good language and mathematical skills, many teachers must be coping very successfully with their disabilities. In addition, often teachers felt that their disabilities helped them become more effective teachers because they understood how to help students with learning disabilities learn. The fact that dyslexia and dyscalculia affected teachers negatively regarding psychological/emotional issues is disheartening. Having personal experiences with dyslexia, themselves, the authors could emphasize and identify with the frustration and stress demonstrated in some of the comments. To alleviate this type of suffering, schools must find ways to help every student (e.g., future teachers) be successful, and each child needs to have an area of expertise to build self-esteem. Students must be taught to appreciate each other's and their own differences. Social skills and emotional coping strategies should be modeled and taught explicitly. What better people to do these tasks with empathy and compassion than the teachers who have experienced their own heartaches due to learning disabilities? The question arises, "Why did dyscalculia affect social relationships but dyslexia did not?" Participants' comments did not shed light on this query. However, the researchers believe that there might be two possible explanations: 1) The cases of dyscalculia in this study were more severe than the cases of dyslexia according to the charactistic checklists. If the cases of dyslexia had been just as severe, then the already-similar pattern of findings for these two disabilities might be identical; and 2) In the very recent past, the general public has heard more about dyslexia; thus, making dyslexia an acceptable, (perhaps, popular) reason for poor language skills. On the other hand, very few people can even define the term, dyscalculia, and many individuals assume that anyone can do mathematics with a calculator. Whereas at one time, it was acceptable to admit problems in mathematics but not reading, the pendulum may have swung to the opposite end of the spectrum. Findings from this study bring to mind many questions, which the authors are currently researching. Does dyscalculia truly affect social relationships differently from dyslexia? What are the attitudes of university faculty toward students with learning disabilities who are preparing to be teachers? Do teachers with learning disabilities face bias in obtaining school employment? Do they inform university faculty, school administrators, mentors, parents, and/or their own students of their disabilities? What are the attitudes of parents and their children toward educators with learning disabilities? Does having a teacher with a learning disability impact student achievement? Hopefully, other researchers will also be interested in questions such as these and investigate these areas as well. Conclusion The implications of this research are clear. Dyslexia and dyscalculia affect teachers with these disabilities in many ways just as they do students with these disabilities. These teachers should be encouraged to feel proud of their accomplishments and serve as role models. They can show students ways that they have learned to cope and compensate to overcome their learning disabilities and help students find their own unique ways to do the same. These teachers can also serve as advocates for students on school level committees and in the community. Using their unique perspectives, they can explain how federal and state legislation will affect students with learning disabilities to parents and other voters. In short, because they have authentic, first-hand experiences with learning disabilities, they can strive to make profound differences in students' lives and, along with other enlightened educators, help make a world in which all people (i.e., with learning disabilities; without learning disabilities) are more likely to find self-fulfillment and live productive lives. Reference List Adelman, P. & Vogel, S. (1993). 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Aphasiology aphasiology /apha·si·ol·o·gy/ (ah-fa?ze-ol´ah-je) the scientific study of aphasia and the specific neurologic lesions producing it. a·pha·si·ol·o·gy (  -f, 15 (7), 635-647. Gerber, P. (1992). Being learning disabled and a beginning teacher and teaching a class of students with learning disabilities. Exceptionality, 3, 213-31. Gerber, P., Ginsberg, R. & Reiff, H. (1992). Identifying alterable patterns in employment success for highly successful adults with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25 (8), 475-87. Heaton, P. & Mitchell, G. (2001). Dyslexia students in need. Philadelphia: Whurr. International Dyslexia Association (2005). FAQ. [On-line]. Available http//www.interdys.org. (Retrieved November 11,2005). Kosc, L. (1974). Developmental dyscalculia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7 (3), 164-177. Lyon, G., Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, B. (2003)j. Defining dyslexia, comorbidity, teachers' knowledge of language and reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1-14. Mortimore, T. (2003). Dyslexia: Dyslexia and learning style. Philadelphia: Whurr. Poussu-Olli, H. (2001). Adult dyslexia: Research and practice. In Hunter-Carsch, M. (Ed.). Dyslexia: A Psycbosocial Perspective. Philadelphia: Whurr. Reiff, H. & Gerber, P. (1995). Social/emotional and daily living issues for adults with learning disabilities. In Gerber, P. & Reiff, H. (Eds.) Learning disabilities in adulthood. Austin, TX: ProEd. Rourke, B. & Conway, J. (1997). Disabilities of arithmetic and mathematical reasoning: Perspective from neurology and neuropsychology. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30 (1), 34-46. Ryan, M. (1994). The other sixteen hours. Baltimore, MD: The International Dyslexia Association. Sharma, M. (1990). Student Math Notes. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. ED 328 413. Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Vogel, S. (1997). College students with learning disabilities: A handbook. Pittsburgh: Learning Disabilities Association of America. Vogel, S. & Adelman, P. (1997). Adults with Learning Disabilities: A fifteen-year follow-up study. Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Dyslexia Association, Minneapolis, MN. Vogel, S. & Adelman, P. (1992). The success of college students with learning disabilities: Factors related to educational attainment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25 (7), 430-41. Wadlington, E. & Wadlington, P. (2005). What educators really believe about dyslexia. Reading Improvement, 42 (1), 16-33. Wadlington, E. & Wadlington, P. (2006, April). How dyslexia and dyscalculia affect educators and their students. Paper to be presented at the annual conference of the Association for Childhood Educational International, San Antonio, TX. Weedon, C. (1992). Specific Learning Disabilities in Mathematics. Department of Education, University of Stirling and Tayside Region, ED 361 944. Wertheim, C.; Vogel, S.; & Brulle, A. (1998). Students with learning disabilities in teacher education programs. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 293-309. Elizabeth M. Wadlington, Southeastern Louisiana University Patrick L. Wadlington, Hogan Assessments, Tulsa, OK Deborah E. Rupp, University of Illinois Elizabeth Wadlington, Ph.D. is a professor of teacher education. Patrick Wadlington Ph.D. is a psychometrician and research scientist in private industry. Deborah Rupp Ph.D. is an assistant professor of industrial/organizational psychology. 
Lee Hugman-Nelson (Member): 3/28/2008 7:26 PM
I would like to thank the authors, who have written a very interesting and informative piece. I am a teacher with dyslexia, and this was very refreshing and inspiratonal to read. <br><br>I would be very interested in reading any further studies in this area.<br><br>Thank you.<br><br>Lee |
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