Effects of an instructor's wheelchair use on communicating concepts to college students.

Within the broad fields of physical education, fitness, and recreation, ability for a teacher to communicate effectively with students is essential. Information being conveyed is not only for verbal or written regurgitation, but exists so individuals can learn to exercise and move safely, and, be motivated to adopt healthy lifetime habits, such as regular participation in physical activity to increase quality of life and decrease mortality. One factor that can impact quality of communication is perceptions students (or clients) have about the leader. How a teacher is perceived can impact how much is learned, and potential for positive changes resulting from what was taught. When someone is physically observed, perceptions might be impacted by stereotypes based on appearance.

Stereotypes have been defined as structured sets of beliefs about personal attributes of a group of people (Ashmore & Del Boca, 1979). They may also be considered to be expectancies about extent to which a group's probable behaviors can be generalized from the group to individuals within the group (Moskowitz, 2005). These cognitive structures are linked to our attitudes about groups of people. Research had established existence of stereotypes for numerous groups (e.g., women, elderly), including individuals with physical disabilities (Jelenec & Steffens, 2002). Some stereotypes associated with individuals with physical disabilities include: they are sad, dependent, emotionally unstable, and isolated (Altman, 1981). These stereotypes are linked with negative attitudes toward employing persons who are physically disabled (Kennedy & Olney, 2001). In general, individuals with disabilities are employed at a rate far less than non-disabled individuals (LaPlante, Kennedy, Kage, & Wenger, 1986; National Organization on Disability, 2004), despite the fact that the majority of individuals with disabilities would prefer to work (NOD, 2004). More than half of citizens questioned admitted they feel embarrassed, and nearly half are fearful around people with disabilities (Wolfe, 1996).

A limited body of research investigated how pre-service physical educators view students with disabilities in physical education settings. Folsom-Meek and Nearing (1995a, 1995b), and Folsom-Meek, Nearing, and Krampf (1995) reported physical educators with appropriate preparation tended to increase favorable attitudes toward students with disabilities. In terms of academic preparation of adapted physical educators, these findings are more positive, and indicated training can help alleviate negative attitudes associated with stereotypes of individuals with disabilities.

Little research has been conducted on teaching effectiveness of fitness instructors or physical educators who are wheelchair users. This protocol was inspired by similar work by Melville and colleagues (Melville & Cardinal, 1988; Melville & Maddalozzo, 1988), who showed high school students two videos depicting an instructor who was fat and one who was fit making the same presentation on the health-related component of flexibility. Their findings supported importance of stereotypes based on physical appearance in physical education; students who viewed the overweight instructor made more errors on a knowledge test following the video. They also disliked the overweight instructor, viewed him as less knowledgeable, stated he was a person who did not practice what he preached, and was not a good role model. They even planned to make an effort to improve their fitness levels less than those who viewed the fit instructor.

Likewise, relatively little research had been conducted on stereotypes concerning wheelchair users. However, Furnham and Thompson (1994) found that although perceivers had generally positive stereotypes about and attitudes toward users of wheelchairs, they believed that non disabled individuals still experienced awkwardness when actually associating with wheelchair users, and that they might even tend to avoid them. Another question arising when assessing attitudes is the concept of attitude specificity (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Attitudes are much better predictors of behavior when attitude measured is closely aligned with the behavior. For example, attitudes toward jogging are much better predictors of actual jogging behavior than attitudes toward working out. Similarly, attitudes about specific types of interactions with individuals in wheelchairs might be more informative than general attitudes towards wheelchair users.

The culture of sport values physical abilities, and individuals with a visibly apparent physical disability might be viewed as unable to perform some movements physically, and, therefore, unable to teach others, or be experts in the field of physical fitness. The purpose of this study was to investigate three questions: a) will students learn as much, more, or less from a teacher in a wheelchair (as opposed to a teacher who is standing unassisted)? b) will students view a teacher seated in a wheelchair more or less favorably in terms of likeability, expertise, and knowledge (compared to a standing teacher)? and c) will students who view a teacher seated in a wheelchair report the same amount of intent to change their exercise habits (compared to students who view a standing teacher)?

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Method

The lead investigator created a script for a 20-minute presentation on muscular strength and endurance; most of the material was from a fitness textbook (Kimbrough, 2000). From the script, two identical video segments were created except for the physical position of the presenter. Video A depicted the instructor standing; Video B showed the instructor sitting in a non-electric wheelchair.

In Videos A and B, no mention was made of the instructor's name, educational or practical expertise, or physical abilities. After creating Video A, minor adjustments were made in the script for Video B to make sure wording and upper-body demonstrations were the same in both videos. Before any data were collected, 10 adult volunteers familiar with muscular strength and endurance concepts viewed both videotapes and concluded information was presented in the same way, except for position of the teacher.

Participants were 190 (138 male, 52 female) volunteer college students from one Texas university; 10 reported a physical disability; 92% were between the ages of 18 and 24 years. All students were enrolled in a health and fitness class and were shown either Video A (n=94) or Video B (n=96). The information in the video was part of the course information the students would have learned had they not seen the video; the video was presented simply as the lecture for the segment of the class on muscular fitness. However, participation in the study was voluntary and the protocol was approved by the appropriate Institutional Review Board.

None of the students had ever seen the teacher in the video before. At the conclusion of the video, participants took a 10-question, multiple choice quiz on the material presented in the video and answered six questions about their impressions of the instructor. Participants responded utilizing a 5-point scale: 5 = strongly disagree; 4 - disagree; 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 2 = agree; 1= strongly agree.

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Results

It was hypothesized that participants who viewed the training video depicting a non-disabled teacher would produce more correct answers on the ensuing quiz, and that they would have generally more positive attitudes toward the teacher and toward committing to exercise in the future. These hypotheses were partially supported. An ANOVA indicated no significant difference on number of correct responses between participants who watched the video with a presenter with a disability and those who watched a non-disabled presenter. However, participants, overall, viewed the teacher without a disability more positively than the teacher with a disability.

A 2 (presenter: disabled vs. non-disabled) X 6 (survey question) MANOVA was used to compare ratings of items on the post-video questionnaire. The multivariate test indicated a significant effect for presenter, F(6,183) = 5.26, p < .01.

Between subject analyses indicated significant differences for questions 1-3, 5, 6. On question 1, participants believed the teacher without a disability was more likely to "practice what she preaches," F(1,188) = 15.40, p < .001. Participants liked the teacher without a disability more in question 2, F(1,188) = 14.38, p < .001. On question 3, respondents perceived the teacher without a disability as more expert, F(1,188) = 8.18, p = .005. According to question 5, participants who had viewed the teacher without a disability were more likely to make plans to improve their physical fitness levels, F(1,188) = 20.2, p < .001. Finally, respondents indicated on question 6 that the teacher without a disability communicated the lesson more clearly, F(1,188) = 8.03, p = .005. (see Table 1, p. 9)

Discussion

The authors of this study investigated whether stereotypes about, and attitudes toward, individuals in a wheelchair would influence efficacy of a physical fitness lesson. Overall, there was no significant difference in knowledge between respondents who learned material from a person in a wheelchair, and those who did not. However, a number of significant differences appeared between the two groups in the follow-up questionnaire. One important difference between the two groups was in plans to improve physical fitness levels. Perhaps, the most important goal in the instruction of physical fitness concepts is the aim to effect real change in health habits of the learners, whether through exercise, diet, or a combination of the two. Interestingly, participants viewed the instructor who used a wheelchair as less likely to "practice what she preaches." They also viewed her as less of an expert, a less effective communicator, and did not like her as much as the standing teacher.

In this research, two health-related components of fitness were emphasized--muscular strength and muscular endurance. Many people probably envision a male athlete when asked to picture an individual with healthy levels of muscular strength and endurance. On television, athletes who are described as strong are usually young males who have no apparent physical disability. Despite continuing progress in technology, legal rights, and sports participation of individuals with disabilities, perceptions of individuals with disabilities remain stagnant and old stereotypes endure (Day, 2000). Often sports events for athletes with disabilities are covered as features, not sports (Shapiro, 1993).

Research demonstrated children as young as preschool age can hold a functionally related preference for a non-disabled person over someone with a physical disability, and they interact differently in social situations as a result (Cohen, 1994). According to social learning theory asserting children learn and then model social behaviors through observation, children acquire attitudes and behaviors, such as sex roles, racial bias, and societal customs and prejudices about disability from models around them (Essa, 1999). Hardin, Hardin, Lynn, and Walsdorf (2001) found in over 36 months of magazines, Sports Illustrated for Kids featured only 24 pictures of athletes with disabilities; of those 24, five were depicted in a position of physical strength. This gross under-representation of athletes with physical disabilities is typical of our culture and illustrates the way many people think (perhaps not explicitly) about physical abilities of individuals who use wheelchairs. It should not be surprising then, that results of this study supported the stereotypes of wheelchair users as less capable of effective teaching on the topic of physical fitness.

It may be valuable to determine if stereotyped perceptions of a teacher can impact long-term fitness plans. The current investigation was exploratory in nature. A longitudinal follow-up study could explore behavior of participants to determine if they are less likely to improve their approach to physical fitness if provided information by a teacher in a wheelchair. Perhaps, with increased exposure to and contact with physically fit individuals who use wheelchairs, people's perceptions about abilities and competencies of individuals with physical disabilities will change.

Complete Details

Contact Sandy Kimbrough, Department of Health and Human Performance, Texas A&M-Commerce, PO Box 3011, Commerce, TX 75429; e-mail, sandy [e-mail]

Selected References

Ajzen, L., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Altman, B. (1981). Studies of attitudes towards the handicapped: the need for a new direction, Social Psychology, 73, 45-52.

Ashmore, R. D., & Del Boca, F. K. (1979). Sex stereotypes and implicit personality theory: Toward a cognitive-social psychological conceptualization. Sex Roles, 5, 219-248.

Cohen, R. (1994). Preschoolers' evaluations of physical disabilities: A consideration of attitudes and behavior. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 19(1), 103-111.

Day, L. A. (2000). Ethics in media Communications: Cases and controversies. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Essa, E. (1999). Introduction to early childhood education (3rd ed). Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers.

Folsom-Meek, S. L., & Nearing, R. J. (1995a). Attitudes of pre-service physical education teachers in Central District AAHPERD colleges and universities toward teaching students with mild disabilities. In Richardson, J. A., & Hoadley, M. (Ed.), Central District Research Section of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Proceedings (Fargo, ND, April 26-30, 1995).

Folsom-Meek, S. L., & Nearing, R. J. (1995b). Relationship between Central District AAHPERD pre-service physical education teachers attributes and attitude toward students with mild disabilities. In Richardson, J. A., & Hoadley, M. (Ed.), Central District Research Section of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Proceedings (Fargo, ND, April 26-30, 1995).

Folsom-Meek, S. L., Nearing, R. J., & Krampf, H. (1995, April). Relationships between pre-service physical education teachers attributes and attitude toward students with mild disabilities. Paper presented at the meeting of the 1995 Annual Convention of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, Portland, OR.

Furnham, A., & Thompson, R. (1994). Actual and perceived attitudes of wheelchair users. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 7, 35-51.

Hardin, B., Hardin, M., Lynn, S., & Walsdorf, K. (2002). Missing in action? Images of disability in Sports Illustrated for Kids. Disability Studies Quarterly, Retrieved August 17, 2007, from www.dsq-sds.org/_articles_pdf/2001/Spring/dsq_2001_Spring_04.pdf. Jelenec, P., & Steffens, M. C. (2002, August 5).

Implicit attitudes toward elderly men and women. Current Research in Social Psychology, Retrieved August 17, 2007, from http://www.uiowa.edu/~grpproc/crisp/crisp.7.16.html

Kennedy, J., & Olney, M. (2001). Job discrimination in the post-ADA era: Estimates from the 1994 and 1995 National Health Interview Surveys. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 45, 24-30.

Kimbrough, S. K. (2000). Fitness and Conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes.

LaPlante, M.P., Kennedy, J., Kaye, H.S., & Wenger, B.L. (1996). Disability and employment. Disability Statistics Abstracts, 11, 1-4.

Melville, D. S., & Cardinal, B. J. (1988). The problem: Body fatness within our profession. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 59, 85-96.

Melville, D. S., & Maddalozzo, J. G. F. (1988). The effects of a physical educator's appearance of body fatness on communicating exercise concepts to high school students. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 7, 343-352.

Moskowitz, G. B. (2005). Social cognition: Understanding self and others. New York: Guilford.

National Organization on Disability. (2004). GAPS survey. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from www.nod.org/Resources/harris2004_data.doc

Shapiro, J. (1993). No pity: People with disabilities forging a new civil rights movement. New York: Times Books.

Wolfe, K. (1996). Ordinary people: why the disabled aren't so different. The Humanist, 56(6), 31-33.

Sandy Kimbrough is the Assistant Department Head of the Department of Health and Human Performance at Texas A&M University-Commerce. She graduated from Texas A&M University with a PhD in Motor Behavior Her primary areas of research are sport psychology and fitness in early adulthood Raymond Green is currently an Associate Professor of Psychology and Director of the Honors College at Texas A&M University-Commerce. He graduated from Rutgers University with a doctorate in Social Psychology. His research interests lie in the areas of social cognition, with an emphasis on stereotypes. Mark White is currently a Lecturer at Texas A&M University in College Station. He graduated from Texas A&M University with a Masters in Kinesiology--Sport Management. His research interests are athletic department finances and physical fitness. The authors wish to thank the Graduate School at Texas A&M University-Commerce for their support of this project, funded by a faculty mini-grant.

Table 1
Participants' knowledge and impression of instructor based on
appearance of physical disability.

                                   Video
Dependent Variable                   *        Mean      Significance

Numbers of knowledge questions                  2.755
incorrect                       B          3.010

Question 1: The instructor in        A          2.181       p < .001
  the video "practices what she      B          2.656
  preaches" about physical
  fitness.
Question 2: 1 liked the              A          2.489       p < .001
  instructor in the video.      B          3.021

Question 3: The instructor in                   3.404       p = .005
  the video was not an expert                   3.021
  on physical fitness.
Question 4: Physical Education                  1.670
  teachers should be good role  B          1.771
  models.
Question 5: As a result of                      2.415       p < .001
  viewing this video, I plan to                 2.979
  make an effort to improve my
  level of physical fitness.
Question 6: The instructor in        A          2.021       p = .005
  the video communicated the         B          2.344
  information clearly.
* Video A showed the instructor standing. Video B showed the
instructor seated in a wheelchair.