ERIC Review: The Role of Community Colleges in Training Tomorrow's School Teachers.

Over the next 10 years, the U.S. will be facing a shortage of elementary and secondary teachers. In 1997, Secretary of Education Richard Riley estimated that schools will need to hire 2 million teachers during the next decade to replace retiring teachers and keep pace with growing enrollments (Riley, 1999). Teacher shortages have been occurring in states and communities around the nation as colleges and schools of education cannot produce enough credentialed teachers to meet the demand (Banks, 1999; Bragg, 1998; Riley, 1999). Higher education must expand efforts to recruit people into the teaching profession and prepare a new generation of qualified teachers.

As a vast sector of higher education and the entry point into higher education for millions of students, community colleges play an important but often overlooked role in teacher education. For prospective teachers, community colleges offer education coursework, teaching field experiences, and teacher preparation articulation agreements and partnerships with four-year institutions. In recent years, educational and state leaders have issued calls for an expanded community college role in teacher training and recruitment. In Shaping the Future, the National Science Foundation asserted: "A large percentage of prospective teachers begin their education in two-year colleges. These institutions, with their clear commitment to teaching and with so many prospective teachers as students, must be more significant partners in the system of teacher preparation" (as cited in Bragg, 1998). This article discusses the need for teachers, presents community colleges as an important source for teacher recruitment, highlights some of the ways in which community colleges contribute to teacher education, and discusses ways to expand the future role of community colleges in teacher preparation.

The Need for Teachers

The current supply of qualified teachers is not sufficient to meet national staffing requirements, nor is the number of students entering teacher training great enough to meet projected demands (Banks, 1999; Bragg, 1998; Hayer & Watson, 1997; Hirsch, Koppich, & Knapp, 1998). Between 1980 and 2002, the number of teachers needed will grow from 2.5 million to 3.3 million. This represents one of the largest increases in teacher demand over the past century (Banks, 1999).

The reasons for this demand are fourfold: rising population of school-age children, high teacher retirement rates, an increased emphasis on smaller class sizes, and high levels of teacher attrition (Banks, 1999; Hirsch, Koppich, & Knapp, 1998). Between 1994 and 2006, enrollment in public schools is expected to increase up to 20% depending on the region (American Association of Colleges for Teaching [AACTE], 1999). Many teachers are nearing retirement with more than half being age 40 or older (AACTE, 1999; Banks, 1999). The student-to-teacher ratio has decreased from 20.0 in 1981 to 18.4 in 1994 and is expected to drop to about 17 by 2006 due to class size reductions (AACTE, 1999). Further exacerbating these demands are difficult working conditions and low salaries that contribute to high attrition rates among teachers (Recruiting New Teachers, Inc. [RNT], 2000a; Riley, 1999).

Enrollment in teacher training programs and the numbers of elementary and secondary teachers are increasing. From 1990-91 to 1993-94, the number of teachers grew by almost 300,000, an 11% increase. Between 1991 and 1995, enrollment in teacher education programs increased almost 6% (AACTE, 1999). Although this recent growth is encouraging, three important factors suggest that the teacher shortage will persist: high teacher demands in certain areas; the large numbers of new teachers working without full credentials; and the need for greater numbers of minority teachers.

Teachers in Rural and Urban Schools

Demand for teachers is not evenly distributed. Rural and inner-city urban schools are more likely to experience teacher shortages than are suburban schools. Teachers in rural schools are less educated, have lower salaries and fewer benefits, and have lower-achieving students than their suburban counterparts. Many teachers look for better-paying jobs in nonrural areas (Banks, 1999). Teachers in urban schools often face a host of challenges. Urban schools have lower-achieving students than other areas and enroll about one half of the nation's students who are not proficient in English, one half of the minority students, and about 40% of the low-income students (RNT, 2000a). In a 1998-99 survey of 40 of the nation's largest school districts, over 90% reported an immediate need for math, science, and special education teachers. Over 70% needed bilingual teachers immediately and approximately one half needed early childhood and elementary teachers (RNT, 2000a).

Underprepared Teachers

Secretary Riley (1999, p. 17) suggested that "a growing number of school districts are throwing a warm body into a classroom, closing the door, and hoping for the best." In California, over 40,000 of the state's approximately 291,000 teachers are working without full credentials, most of them in urban areas, despite more than $1 billion allocated by the state over the past two years to recruit and train teachers (Helfand, 2000). Due to a shortage of qualified candidates, many of the nation's schools have no option but to hire teachers lacking credentials. In addition, many credentialed teachers are teaching out of their subject field (Allen, 1999). Urban and disadvantaged schools are especially likely to have teachers who lack formal preparation in subject content (Allen, 1999; Banks, 1999).

Minority Teachers

The need for more minority teachers is frequently discussed by politicians, educators, and concerned citizens. In 1997, over one third of the students in public elementary and secondary schools were minorities, although less than 15% of teachers were minorities (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000). Minority teachers are more likely to teach in schools with high percentages of minority students. The highest percentage of minority teachers occurs at schools where minority students comprise more than one half of the student body; nonminority teachers are less likely to teach at these schools (AACTE, 1999). The training of more minority teachers is one way to address teacher shortages at urban schools with high minority enrollments.

Why Do Students Enter Teaching Careers?

It is important for community college leaders and faculty to understand the reasons students are attracted to teaching careers. Student interest in teaching careers increases during college among students at four-year institutions, as a greater proportion of seniors report interest in teaching as compared to freshmen (Astin, 1993). In general, student attitudes and beliefs related to careers undergo changes during college. The students develop more realistic and mature outlooks on potential professions. Intrinsic career values such as autonomy, creativity, and intellectual challenge increase. Students tend to become more concerned with social responsibilities and aware of community needs and slightly less concerned with future occupational status and earnings (Astin, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Tusin, 1999). These findings suggest that service-oriented careers such as teaching may become more attractive as students progress through college.

Much of the research related to choice of teaching as a career has been conducted on preservice teachers, education students, and early career teachers. Factors positively associated with the decision to enter teaching fall into six primary categories: 1) family background; 2) previous experiences with teachers; 3) an attraction to the extrinsic aspects of teaching; 4) the desire to work with children and youth; 5) the desire to make a positive contribution to society or community; and 6) love of subject matter or field (Green & Weaver, 1992; Jantzen, 1981; Marso & Pigge, 1994; Pigge & Marso, 1988; Su, 1997; Tusin, 1999). The fifth and sixth factors should be of particular interest to the community college. The undergraduate years are a time when people tend to gain interest in social contributions and receive their first exposure to their field or major (Astin, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). If the interest in contributing to society is identified and cultivated at the community college level, and if academic subjects are taught in such a way as to appeal to students, then an interest in teaching might be further developed.

Community Colleges as a Source for Teacher Recruitment

Community colleges are an important resource in recruiting new teachers. According to a study conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, 21% of the teachers who graduated in 1992 started their education at community colleges (as cited in Hayer & Watson, 1997). However, community colleges are often overlooked within the teacher education system. A greater emphasis on community colleges could help address the national need for more school teachers.

Diverse Student Body

Community colleges enroll almost 40% of undergraduates and serve a broad segment of the nation's populace. Their student bodies are diverse, with higher percentages of minority, nontraditional, and low-income students than four-year institutions (Cohen & Brawer, 1996; Phillippe & Patton, 2000). Community colleges serve as an important entry point into the higher educational pipeline for approximately 45% of first-time college students, including many first-generation students (RNT, 2000b). Community colleges also serve students in rural and inner-city areas where teachers are in high demand (Bragg, 1998).

One of the most important aspects of community colleges is the high enrollment of minority students. Community colleges enroll almost 50% of all undergraduate minority students. Nationally, minority students make up 30% of community college enrollments and more than 50% in some urban communities (Cohen & Brawer, 1996; Phillippe & Patton, 2000). This diverse pool of students represents an important source of potential future teachers.

Student Interest in the Teaching Profession

Undergraduate interest in teaching careers has increased since a low point in the early 1980s but is still considerably lower than peak levels in the 1960s. In 2000, 6.3% of first-time freshmen indicated interest in a career as an elementary school teacher or administrator, while 4.5% expressed interest in secondary teaching or administration. The proportion of freshmen expressing interest in elementary teaching is about two thirds of what it was in the late 1960s: The proportion of those interested in secondary teaching is less than one-third the level in the 1960s (Astin, Parrott, Korn, & Sax, 1997; Sax, Astin, Korn, & Mahoney, 2000).

The NCES reported in 1996 that 5.5% of community college freshmen are interested in teaching at the elementary level and 3.5% are interested in secondary teaching (as cited in RNT, 2000b). This number "translates into a total of over 500,000 individuals interested in becoming teachers--fully one-quarter of the total predicted need over the next ten years" (RNT, 2000b, para. 2). This rich resource of potential teaching talent has not been historically well-utilized. Anglin, Mooradian, and Hamilton (1993, p. 9) suggested that community colleges are "a missing rung of the teacher education ladder" in terms of teacher recruitment. Banks (1999) pointed out the great potential of community colleges to supply teachers but noted that they remain "a largely untapped source of potential candidates" (p. 16).

Efforts to actively recruit prospective teachers into community colleges and from community colleges into four-year institutions are relatively recent phenomena (Banks, 1999). Many states and higher education systems currently have recruitment programs in place, although wide-scale, systematic programs are still largely forthcoming.

Roles of Community Colleges in Educating Prospective Teachers

Community and junior colleges have played an important role in teacher training for much of their history. Eells (1931) reported that in 1930, 65% of junior colleges had curricular offerings in the field of education. Of eight

vocational fields classified, a larger number of junior colleges offered terminal programs in education than in any other field. Koos (1924) found in a national sample of junior colleges that an average of 3.7% of curricular offerings were in the field of education. In the early part of the twentieth century, many teachers, particularly elementary teachers, completed all of their training at a junior college. Teaching certificates from junior colleges often met state teaching requirements (Eells, 1931; Koos, 1924). According to Eells (1924, p. 760), "the junior colleges at the present time are in many cases acting as teacher-training institutions."

The potential benefits of two-year colleges to the teacher-training enterprise were recognized early. In 1925, Almack pointed out the ability of junior colleges to provide economical teacher training and to reach potential teachers who might otherwise lack educational opportunities (as cited in Eells, 1931). Noting a lack of well-prepared teachers, Seashore (1940, p. 66) wrote that "the junior college must take up the burden and do its best to raise the educational level" of teachers through "approximately two years of the best designable training for the work." Koos (1924) predicted that teachers colleges would expand articulation with two-year colleges to increase recruitment and suggested that the "establishment of junior colleges will, by making the first two years of training on the collegiate level more accessible, hasten the elevation of standards of teacher preparation" (p. 383).

Today, community colleges contribute to teacher education and training through both general educational services and through specific programs. In the general sense, community colleges offer an educational environment focused primarily on teaching. Mensel (1990, p. 8) described community colleges as "teaching colleges" with faculty who pride themselves on being classroom teachers. According to Cohen and Brawer (1996, p. 161), community colleges have "emphasized the importance of teaching since their earliest days" and have faculty who are "free to address nearly their full attention to instruction." Community colleges also offer a broad range of coursework options to people interested in the teaching profession, including courses in education, child development, and academic subjects.

Education Coursework

American community colleges conferred almost 10,000 associate degrees in education and about 1,000 certificates in education in 1996-97 (Phillippe & Patton, 2000). The field of education accounts for slightly more than 1% of the total credit curriculum delivered at community colleges (Cohen & Brawer, 1996). Although this is a small percentage of the whole, it is by no means a trivial aspect of curriculum in light of the hundreds of colleges and millions of students involved. Education courses are not necessarily teacher preparation courses. Early childhood education courses are among the most popular education courses and are found at many colleges. Courses specifically designed for preprofessional teacher training are less common. According to the California Community College Chancellor's Office, 90% of the state's community colleges surveyed offer early childhood education courses, though only 30 out of 107 colleges offer teacher education courses (http://www.cccco.edu). Students in these courses are often teacher's aides or other students interested in transferring to teacher training programs and earning teaching credentials (RNT, 2000b).

Teacher Preparation Programs

A 1999 national survey of community college presidents and deans found that 54% of responding colleges had teacher preparation programs. There is considerable variation among these programs, which include distinct schools of education with thousands of students and small programs managed by single liberal arts departments (RNT, 2000b). Many of the teacher preparation programs are relatively limited in scope. In the RNT survey, of those colleges with relevant programs, 35% offered two or fewer preprofessional courses and only 9% offered more than 10 such courses. Eighty percent offered student teaching or field experiences and over half offered extracurricular activities for prospective teachers. The primary goals of these programs are to prepare prospective teachers for transfer and to offer preprofessional teacher education curriculum (RNT, 2000b).

Articulation Agreements and Partnerships with Four-Year Institutions

Articulation agreements and partnerships with four-year institutions are increasingly popular mechanisms to move prospective teachers from community colleges into teacher training at a four-year college or university. Articulation agreements specify courses and curricular requirements students must follow in order to transfer between partner institutions. Historically, students who completed education courses at community colleges faced difficulties in transferring credits into teacher education programs at baccalaureate institutions. Teacher-credentialing programs tended to require specialized coursework and were unwilling to accept work completed at community colleges. In recent years, this situation has improved somewhat as state boards and educational leaders have encouraged the development of articulation agreements (Anglin, Mooradian, & Hamilton, 1993). Over three quarters of the colleges in the RNT survey had an articulation agreement with a four-year institution and about 12% were in the process of establishing such an agreement (RNT, 2000b). Aside from formal teacher preparation programs, many education and preprofessional courses at community colleges are not articulated with universities.

Partnerships involve a higher level of collaboration than articulation agreements. Partners typically agree upon a shared mission and set of goals and develop a joint curriculum. In joint-admission partnerships, students are jointly admitted into a program spanning a community college and a four-year institution. Students typically complete some preprofessional coursework at the community college, along with some field experiences, and then transfer to continue training at the four-year institution. About one third of the programs in the RNT survey reported joint-admission agreements (RNT, 2000b).

In addition to joint-admissions, partnerships may involve team teaching or sharing of faculty, teaching institutes, summer programs, collaborative recruiting efforts, or joint use of school sites for field experiences (Bragg, 1998; Warren, 1996). These kinds of partnerships will likely become more common in the future. In an effort to develop similar partnerships, California's Teacher and Reading Development Partnerships offer grants to community college districts that develop partnerships with universities and schools to help identify and train prospective teachers in their first two years of college (http://www.cccco.edu).

Examples of Programs and Partnerships

Teacher TRAC, Cerritos College (CA)

Teacher TRAC (Teacher training ACademy) is a teacher training partnership between Cerritos College and California State University, Long Beach, for elementary school teachers. The Teacher TRAC program allows students to complete a bachelor of arts degree in liberal studies and a teaching credential in four years. Students interested in the program must meet a set of minimum academic requirements and file a special program application. Once a student is admitted to Teacher TRAC at Cerritos College, a future spot is reserved in the Integrated Teacher Education Program at CSU Long Beach. Students complete two years of lower division general education coursework and premajor requirements for the liberal studies major at Cerritos College. If all coursework is successfully completed, the students transfer to the four-year university for upper division coursework and completion of teacher credential requirements. The Teacher TRAC program at Cerritos College includes a staff of program coordinators and counselors in addition to the education faculty. The program offers community college students service-learning field experience at local schools and support in preparing for tests and other credential requirements (http://www.teachertrac.com).

Project TEACH, Green River Community College (WA)

Project TEACH is a teacher preparation program offering transferable coursework for teacher Credentials and field experiences for community college students interested in teaching. Green River Community College (GRCC) students interested in teaching careers meet with Project TEACH faculty advisors who help plan a course of study. Recommended course series for early childhood educators, elementary educators, and secondary educators have been designed. Students in Project TEACH gain field experiences in local partner school districts. They are expected to develop a professional portfolio as they progress through coursework and are encouraged to join the Teachers of Tomorrow Club, a social and professional network of future teachers at GRCC. Partly funded by the NSF, the program has support and coordination staff in place to assist students, who are awarded certificates documenting their experience. College fairs, meetings, and field trips to four-year institutions in Washington are arranged to assist students in transfer decisions (Bragg, 1998; http://www.ivygreen.ctc.edu/projectteach/homepage.htm).

UIC-Community College Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (IL)

The UIC-Community College Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation is an NSF-funded collaboration among the University of Illinois at Chicago and six local community colleges. The purpose of the collaborative is "to advance the preparation of future teachers in the teaching of mathematics and science, and to increase the number of students in the collaborating institutions who choose careers in teaching" (http://www.math.uic.edu/IMSE/CETP/uic_cetp.html). Activities of the collaborative include the following: faculty development to improve teaching in math and science; efforts to improve undergraduate curriculum in math, science, and education; recruitment of future teachers, especially students from underrepresented groups; and mentoring of new teachers. The collaborative organizes institutes and symposiums for faculty and curricular development and supports research and assessment on programs and innovative practices (http://www.math.uic.edu/IMSE/CETP/ uic_cetp.html).

Goals for the Future

Teacher preparation should be a more integral part of the community college function. McCann (2001, p. 4) states that community colleges "devalue the importance of teacher preparation by not elevating it to appropriate standard" within the college missions. To serve in teacher preparation better, community colleges should continue offering and expanding the coursework and services currently in place for prospective teachers. College leaders should also work to establish additional articulation agreements, develop formal programs, and provide the types of experiences valuable for future educators. The following are examples of ways to accomplish these goals:

Expand articulation agreements and partnerships with four-year institutions. Lack of formal articulation agreements remains a barrier for prospective teachers. Community colleges need to collaborate with the teacher training programs at local four-year institutions and offer courses that will be accepted upon transfer. Partnerships encourage collaboration between faculty and students across institutions, make available the resources of four-year institutions, and help familiarize students with the four-year environment (Anglin, Mooradian, & Hamilton, 1993; Bragg, 1998; Coley, 1995; Haver & Watson, 1997; RNT, 2000b; Warren, 1996).

Develop teacher preparation programs. Formal teacher preparation programs are lacking at many community colleges. Programs that are in place are often small and underfunded. Teacher preparation programs should offer a comprehensive curriculum that combines coursework with field experiences (Anglin, Mooradian, & Hamilton, 1993; Bragg, 1998; RNT, 2000b). This coordinated approach is more advantageous to prospective teachers than uncoordinated education course offerings.

Offer counseling and student support services. Student support services are essential to help enhance the success of prospective teachers. Counselors knowledgeable about teacher training programs and requirements are an invaluable resource for students in the transfer process. Designation of counselors to specifically serve prospective teachers is desirable. Faculty mentors can offer useful assistance with both academic issues and preprofessional concerns. Mentors may include professors from two- and four-year colleges, as well as practicing teachers from local schools. Services targeted at minority students are an important part of an effective student services program for prospective teachers (Anglin, Mooradian, & Hamilton, 1993; Bragg, 1998; Coley, 1995; RNT, 2000b).

Involve students in local schools. Hands-on experience is one of the most valuable components of teacher education. Preprofessional field experiences offer students the opportunity to interact with students and staff at local school sites. Students become more familiar with the requirements and challenges of the teaching profession. Early field experiences help prospective teachers evaluate their interest in the profession (Anglin, Mooradian, & Hamilton, 1993; Bragg, 1998; Haver & Watson, 1997). Involvement with school sites may include observing classrooms, student teaching, volunteering to assist teachers in the classroom, and serving as a mentor to K-12 students.

Actively recruit in the service area. Efforts to expand the function of community colleges in teacher preparation must involve recruitment by community college campuses, districts, and systems. The colleges can serve as part of larger, coordinated recruitment strategies. Visits by college personnel to local schools and marketing of teacher preparation programs and courses within the service area reach potential students in the community. Partnerships with local high schools can work to identify promising prospective teachers (Bragg, 1998; Haver & Watson, 1997; Hirsch, Koppich, & Knapp, 1998). Recruitment efforts focused on students already enrolled at community colleges are also important, as many students are in the formative years of the career decision-making process.

Conclusion

Community colleges already play an important role in teacher education through coursework, teacher preparation programs, partnerships, recruitment efforts, and other activities. With diverse populations and locations in many areas in need of teachers, community colleges are an important pool of talent for future classroom teachers. The focus on teaching and the wide variety of programs available make community colleges valuable environments for educating prospective teachers. To help address the need for more teachers, especially minority teachers, the role of community colleges in educating tomorrow's teachers should be emphasized to an even greater extent. Of the millions of students enrolled in community colleges, there are thousands of potential teachers. Reaching these students is one of the solutions in the challenge to educate qualified teachers for the future.

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Dean Gerdeman is a doctoral student at UCLA's Graduate School of Education and Information Studies and the publications assistant for the ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. [e-mail]