ERIC Review: Scholarship in the Community College System.

The author reviews the literature on scholarship in community colleges, discusses the notable contributions that community college scholars make through research efforts such as action research, and recommends institutional changes that can foster increased scholarship by community college practitioners.

Because of their open-policy admissions, low cost, teaching emphasis, and wide-ranging course and program offerings, community colleges enjoy a singular status among educational institutions. These distinguishing characteristics reflect their mission to respond to the needs of the community. The four-year universities have a somewhat different role, which sometimes overlaps, but most often complements, that of community colleges. Efforts to maintain excellence in the delivery of instruction need not and should not eliminate the differences among these institutions. If community colleges are to continue to fulfill their mission successfully, their leaders must continually assess their institutions' roles within the educational system. Economists often invoke the principle of comparative advantage, urging countries to use their unique endowments to specialize and trade with one another to achieve greater world prosperity. That concept can also be applied to educational institutions: Strong productivity and efficiency gains can be derived from specialization and mutual cooperation.

The commitment of the community college faculty to excellent teaching, however, does not necessarily prohibit them from engaging in scholarship. Indeed, the institutionalization of scholarship is essential to the future of community colleges. Although some writers contend that community college faculty are reluctant to intrude on the research territory of university professors (Williams, 1991), different kinds of research may be appropriate for community college faculty. Furthermore, only through undertaking some form of research will two-year colleges be able to thrive and excel in a fast-changing world. Cohen and Brawer (1996) make the point that community college teachers are limited in the variety of courses that they are allowed to teach because they are restricted to freshman and sophomore levels. To offset that limitation and to avoid burn-out, it is imperative that educators have a creative outlet. Scholarship provides that outlet. The excitement of research can keep teachers invigorated as well as up-to-date and in touch with new developments in their fields of study. Developing a new course, devising a novel approach to a syllabus, giving a presentation, or engaging in some other creative activity can combat boredom and invigorate teaching.

This paper presents an overview of the literature on scholarship in community colleges. The need to expand the definition of research will be discussed, along with a description of the notable contributions that community colleges make through, for example, action research. The discussion will also include recommendations for institutional changes that can foster more scholarship at community colleges. Finally, to aid those who wish to engage in research at the community college level, some resources will be listed in the appendices to this review.

The State of Scholarship in the Community College System

Using traditional definitions of scholarship, it is commonly accepted that community college faculty do not conduct as much research as do four-year university professionals. A survey conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics in 1994 found that of the over 880,000 faculty employed in America's colleges and universities, 12% were primarily engaged in research and that in two-year colleges, almost no full-time faculty were primarily engaged in research (Hagan, 1995). Padovan and Whittington (1998), however, found that community college teachers and administrators responding to their survey "indicated that they valued scholarly activity and believed faculty should participate in such activity" (p. 222). Mahaffey and Welsh (1993) also found that "more community college faculty valued scholarship than actually engaged in it" (p. 35).

However, the reality is that no systematic planning or budgetary network exists for such activities at many community colleges, and the obstacles are many. Palmer (1994) found that "limited time was the overriding concern" (p. 395). Obstacles also include limited access to research materials and a lack of support, encouragement, and rewards from the institution. Interestingly, Palmer finds that when faculty did receive support, "it was more likely to be in the form of collegial assistance rather than monetary outlay" or release time (p. 394). Ironically, community college settings can be a fertile ground of unique opportunities for those willing to overcome such considerable constraints.

The view that community colleges are somewhat inferior to universities has often been expressed in the literature. For example, Vaughan (1992) makes the point that community college members are "prisoners of elitism," created by "their image and the self-doubts caused by that image and not because of the qualifications of community college professionals" (p. 24). That inferiority has been in part attributed to the lack of research by community college faculty. This narrow view ignores the creative, innovative, and dynamic teaching that is the trademark of the community college.

The literature indicates that research and scholarship must be redefined to encompass many activities that are already being undertaken in community colleges. Vaughan (1988, 1991) asserts that expanding the term scholarship would have the added benefit of favorably changing the reputation of community colleges as institutions of higher learning. The terms scholarship and research will be used interchangeably throughout this paper, in the same broad categorization used by Palmer (1994). Palmer's seven broad categories of scholarship are listed below.

Conference papers Publications Instructional materials Research or technical reports Community information materials Exhibits or performances in the fine arts Technical innovations Other products

According to Vaughan (1991), an increasing number of community college faculty are engaged in applied classroom research. He asserts that if the definition of scholarship were broadened to include book reviews, annotated bibliographies, outside lectures, reviews of existing research, or speeches, much more credit would be given to community college professionals who already engage in many of these activities. Palmer (1994) states that "if scholarship is defined broadly along the lines suggested by Vaughan, and not limited solely to original research, then it appears that most community college faculty--perhaps 80 percent of those employed on a full-time basis--are actively engaged in the production of works that are of potential [emphasis added] scholarly value" (p. 398). Other authors and educators have advocated even more liberal definitions of scholarship. Pellino, Blackburn, and Boberg (1984) identify the following possible dimensions of scholarship: professional activity; research and publication; artistic endeavors; engagement with novel ideas; community services; and pedagogy. Boyer (1990) describes four broad perspectives of scholarship, namely the search for new knowledge, consolidation of isolated fact, interdisciplinary connections, and keeping current in one's field. Vaughan (1992) defines scholarship as the following:

   Scholarship is the systematic pursuit of a topic, an objective, rational
   inquiry that involves critical analysis. It requires the precise observing,
   organizing, and recording of information in the search for truth and order.
   Scholarship is the umbrella under which research falls, for research is but
   one form of scholarship. Scholarship results in a product that is shared
   with others and that is subject to the criticism of individuals qualified
   to judge the product. This product may take the form of a book review, an
   annotated bibliography, a lecture, a review of existing research on a
   topic, a speech that is a synthesis of the thinking on a topic. Scholarship
   requires that one have a solid foundation in one's professional field and
   that one keep up with the developments in that field. (p. 28)

An important point made by Palmer (1991) is that although the definition of scholarship must be broadened to include many scholarly pursuits already being undertaken by community college professionals, one must not make that definition open-ended, at the risk of trivializing these professionals' scholarship endeavors. He cautions against including projects that "may have intrinsic value to the instructor" or that "may fulfill a governmental data collection mandate--if neither adds to the knowledge base of a profession or is tested through peer review. A faculty member must make his or her results public, and the work must contribute to the knowledge that exists" (p. 71). That the final product be subject to the scrutiny of other specialists in the field seems to be the "litmus test" of rigor employed by the researcher.

Barriers to Research in the Community College

Community college faculty who have published articles have expressed their concern about the difficulties they encounter during the research and writing phases. In a 1997 informal survey of nine faculty members who have recently published articles, the responses consistently showed that individuals must use their own time if they choose to conduct research and publish. As one professor remarked, "I do not find time to publish. I make time, usually after 11:30 at night, on Saturdays and Sundays, and during the summer. In a sense, it is my free time, my recreation, and I do it because I enjoy it.... I have tried to get release time and funds from the college, but have never been successful" (Baer, 1997). Another interviewee stated that he received no help from the college other than the use of the library and staff for help in locating books: "As far as the college was concerned, my work was invisible" (McClellan, 1997).

A study sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics (1992) further corroborates those assertions. Data compiled show that full-timers work an average of 46.6 hours per week, and the majority of time is allocated to teaching (67%), 9.2% for administrative work, about 19% for other activities, and a dismal 4.5% for research. The informal survey of nine faculty members uncovered an additional obstacle to scholarship in the community college--many teachers do not have doctorates or the skills to conduct research. Similarly, the National Center for Education Statistics (1992) study found that the majority of community college faculty had a master's degree (61%) and only 15.5% held a doctoral degree or professional equivalent.

Overall, without exception, all nine faculty members who were informally surveyed maintained that the motivation for their research was the hope that it would lead them to be better and more productive teachers. That motivation ranked much higher than pursuing the glamour involved in seeing one's name in print. In support of this dedication to teaching, an effort to minimize or do away with institutional barriers to research is critical.

Institutional Changes that Could Foster Research

The 1994 National Education Commission on Time and Learning (NECTL) published a report entitled Prisoners of Time. In that report, several conclusions emerged that might shed light on the institutional change process. The report indicates that more will be expected of teachers, both in terms of quantity and complexity of knowledge, including technological expertise. With the current average age of a two-year college faculty member at 47, with ages ranging from 21 to 91 years old, long-time community college faculty members face a special challenge. Not only do "graying" teachers need time to plan and conduct their own research and scholarship, they also need time to understand and use new technologies. A conflict arises because budgetary concerns drive teaching loads increasingly higher, yet the number of hours in a day stubbornly remains 24. Presumably, the new teachers will be more proficient in technological skills, thus freeing up scarce time to conduct more research. Thus, hopes for increasing research and scholarship may have a better chance of being fulfilled as additional technologically literate individuals are hired.

For the present, some changes can be made to foster an atmosphere of research and scholarship in the community college. Not only will the new system require granting faculty some time to pursue research activities, but what may be more important is that these activities need to be encouraged by the institution. In this process of institutionalizing research, however, judging faculty on their research productivity may not necessarily be the best approach. Educators in the community college should not be forced to undergo the pressure to "publish or perish" that is so common at the university level. Being forced to publish has not always led to relevant or productive research. Instead, measurement of activities that enhance teaching--whether they are published or not--should become the priority-in faculty evaluation.

On the other hand, Padovan and Whittington's work (1998) uncovered concerns expressed by community college faculty that "scholarship criteria in the evaluation process for promotion, tenure, and salary increase would create a scholarship-or-perish environment," and that "the pressure caused by scholarship criteria in the formal reward systems of two-year colleges would probably impede excellence in teaching and interfere with close faculty-student interactions" (p. 224). Ultimately, the challenge is to create an evaluation process that emphasizes quality teaching, with scholarship as one means of contributing to that end.

Community colleges need to begin promoting a climate of encouragement and reward for scholarship and research, starting with administrative support. Although not claiming that a consensus in the literature exists, Parilla (1991) goes so far as to suggest that, to some degree, scholarship should become an integral part of the criteria for hiring, promotion, and tenure. This will only happen when changes are implemented in the culture and reward system of the college.

Administrators must support and reinforce faculty efforts to conduct research. Padovan and Whittington (1998) suggest that "if administrators [were] to serve as role models [by] becoming involved in scholarly pursuits," they would "set the stage for scholarly activity on campus and provide common ground on which to nurture a collegial atmosphere between the administration and the faculty" (p. 227). Administrators need to recognize that professional development is an intrinsic part of the productivity of the teacher in the classroom. Teacher learning must be viewed as an ongoing process. Professor McClellan, a historian, author, and community college professor, summed up the need for institutional support of research in an interview as follows: "A community college exists first and foremost as a teaching institution. This, however, does not mean it should be oblivious to the research efforts undertaken by its faculty. While research and writing are not, and should not be, priorities equal in importance to teaching, they should ... [be] ... encouraged through institutional support." He further states that although "scholars who are attracted to community colleges may be more concerned with teaching than in researching their academic specialty, they are still scholars with enlightened insights and intellectual curiosity, but course loads preempt research time" (McClellan, 1997).

Community College Scholarship: Action Research

One form of research that is uniquely tailored to the needs of the community college is action research. Action research is one of the more recent research terms mentioned in the writings of many educators. The concept is not new, however. Some authors trace it as far back as the early works of John Dewey in the 1920s. Currently, it is gaining momentum. In 1990, for example, Kember and Gow conducted an ERIC search of "action research" and "higher education" and found only 74 entries. The author of this review conducted the same search in 1997 and obtained 372 documents. Action research can be defined as a systematic process of studying one's own practice to find answers and practical solutions to pragmatic problems. McKay (1992), for example, documents the positive effects of action research on faculty personal and professional development.

Action research provides researchers with tools for taking a critical look at their own professional achievements. Teachers engaging in such activities have the potential to become more reflective and thus better able to identify possible avenues for change in their current methods. Connolly and Dotson (1996) describe the use of action research to implement curriculum changes in the area of early childhood education at Sinclair Community College. They state that "teachers select issues or questions which have value to them and undertake a planned inquiry" (pp. 1-2). Furthermore, they remark, action research is a vehicle whereby one can investigate a "practical problem for a particular group" (p. 2). Moreover, they declare, "Action research is flexible, open-ended, and cyclical in nature. There is a focus on the practical and consideration of human interactions. The result of action research is action based on the best available data" (p. 16).

Brown and Jelfo (1994) describe an initiative to promote action research at Cuyahoga Community College. The initiative is based on the belief that "improvements in instruction and learning are dependent upon research and evaluation" (p. 2). The authors describe the program's procedures, which mirror those for conducting action research in the sense that the project has been set up as a continuous improvement cycle (as opposed to a finite initiative).

The impetus for action research is found in the problems identified by the teachers themselves. Consequently, the research possibilities are vast. For example, one could identify problems in the curriculum, in the discipline, or in the methodology used. Brown and Jelfo (1994) suggest that one can use "problems identified in the school situation that are causing the research worker trouble or are interfering with the efficiency of his teaching" (p. 19). In any case, the research becomes a catalyst for evaluation to determine the possibility or the necessity for change. The goal of Cuyahoga's initiative is "to obtain knowledge that can be applied directly to the local classroom situation" (Brown & Jelfo, 1994, p. 19). What makes this approach intriguing is the possibility of merging self-assessment with action research. One would be simultaneously engaged in the process of identifying the needs, designing the process, and evaluating the outcomes.

McKay (1992) describes the following steps in the process of conducting action research: (a) identifying the issue or problem; (b) compiling and gathering data; (c) devising a plan; (d) implementing the plan; and (e) evaluating the results. The process turns out to be cyclical because one uses the same steps to then analyze the results from the first cycle. As exemplified at Cuyahoga Community College, the main challenge in action research (for it to be considered a form of scholarship) is to apply the results beyond the participating teacher.

Conclusion

To conclude, community colleges need not strive to compete with four-year universities in the research arena. Each type of institution has its own mission to fulfill. Ignash (1992) correctly states that "four-year institutions need to realize their debt to community colleges and to start to regard them as equal partners in the process of providing higher education to the nation's adults. Community colleges take pressure for admission off the baccalaureate institutions. They also provide services for special populations of students which four year institutions are not always well equipped to handle" (p. 3).

It is only fitting that the different purposes embodied in the mission statements of both types of institutions are reflected in the types of research that are conducted by their respective teachers. Community college faculty, for the most part, love and indeed excel in the teaching aspect of the profession. It is natural that they choose to channel their scholarship towards enhancing their teaching skills. Community college faculty must often perform under less than optimal conditions, serving an increasingly diverse population that has many critical needs. Their research will reflect the pragmatic needs of that population and that environment. These obstacles underscore the fact that whatever scholarship is conducted in the community college is indeed a "labor of love" for the profession, as opposed to the result of pressure to "publish or perish." What must be changed is the perception that such research is somehow inferior to the "pure" research that faculty at four-year institutions often undertake. Some institutional reforms must take place, however, and there are some encouraging signs that they are already happening.

References

Baer, J. (1997, November). Personal communication.

Boyer, E. L. (1987). College: The undergraduate experience in America. New York: Harper & Row.

Brown, V., & Jelfo, D. T. (1994). Faculty as researcher initiative. Paper presented at the International Conference on Teaching Excellence and Conference of Administrators, sponsored by the National Institute for Staff and Organizational Development (NISOD) (Austin, TX, May 22-25). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 371 803)

Cohen, A. M., & Brawer, F. B. (1996). The American community college (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Connolly, M., & Dotson, M. (1996). Using action research to inform curriculum deliberation in an early childhood teacher education program. Paper presented at the 1996 Conference of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association (Chicago, Illinois, October 2-5). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 405 941)

Hagan, M. (November, 1995). Against the odds: A discussion of the problems and solutions of researching at a community college. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association (San Antonio, Texas, November 18-21). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 392 502)

Ignash, J. (1992). In the shadow of baccalaureate institutions. ERIC Digest. Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 348 129) [On-line]. Available: http://www.ed.gov/ databases/ERIC_Digests/ed348129.html

Ismat, A. (1995). Making time for professional development. ERIC Digest (no. 95-4). Washington DC: ERIC Clearinghouse of Teaching and Teacher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 400 259) [On-line]. Available: http://www.ericsp.org/95-4.html

Kember D., & Gow L. (1992). Research as a form of staff development. Higher Education, 23(3), 297-310.

Mahaffey, J., & Welsh, M. F. (1993). Scholarship and the vitality of a community college faculty. Community College Review, 21(1), 31-40.

McClellan, J. R. (1997, November). Personal communication.

McKay, J. A. (1992). Professional development through action research. Journal of Staff Development, 13(1), 18-21.

National Education Commission on Time and Learning. (1994). Prisoners of time. Washington DC: Author.

National Center for Education Statistics. (1992). National study of post-secondary faculty. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Padovan, P., & Whittington, D. (1998). Rewarding faculty scholarship at two-year colleges: Incentive for change or perceived threat? Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 22, 213-228

Palmer, J. C. (1991). Nurturing scholarship at community colleges. In G. B. Vaughan & J. C. Palmer (Eds.), Enhancing teaching and administration through scholarship (pp. 69-77). New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 76. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Palmer, J. C. (1994). The scholarly activities of community college faculty: Findings of a national survey. In J. L. Ratcliff, S. Schwarz, & L.H. Ebbers (Eds.), Community colleges (pp. 387-399). Ashe Reader Series (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Simon & Schuster, Custom Publishing.

Parilla, R. E. (1991). Scholarship in the community college: A president's perspective. In G.B. Vaughan & J.C. Palmer (Eds.), Enhancing teaching and administration through scholarship (pp. 27-38). New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 76. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pellino, G.R., Blackburn, R.T., & Boberg, A.L. (1984). The dimensions of academic scholarship: Faculty and administrator views. Research in Higher Education, 20(1), 103-115.

Vaughan, G. B. (1988). Scholarship in community colleges: The path to respect. Educational Record, 69(2), 26-31.

Vaughan, G. B. (1991). Scholarship and the community college professional: Focusing the debate. In G.B. Vaughan & J.C. Palmer (Eds.), Enhancing teaching and administration through scholarship (pp. 3-16). New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 76. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Vaughan, G. B. (1992). The community college unbound. In B.W. Dziech & W.R. Vilter (Eds.), Prisoners of elitism: The community college's struggle for stature (pp. 23-34). New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 78. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Williams, D. N. (1991). The role of scholarship in the community college. ERIC Digest. Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338 294)

Appendix A

Possible Avenues for Publication

American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) has a research agenda that encompasses broad areas, including "Technology, Workforce Training, Faculty and Staff Development, Collegiate Education, and Institutional Finances/Cost." For more details, visit their website (http://www.aacc.nche.edu/research/agenda.htm).

ERIC Clearinghouse on Community Colleges accepts submissions of research reports, scholarly papers, position papers, manuals, handbooks, course syllabi, conference papers, and other similar documents for inclusion in the education database. These papers are subject to evaluation and selection by subject experts. For information about publishing opportunities, contact [e-mail] or 1-800-832-8256, or visit their website (http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/ERIC/eric.html).

ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education is conducting a national study on the quality and content of higher education literature. To become a part of the project, e-mail or fax a request. This information also can be viewed at the project web site (http://www.gwu.edu/ ~eriche/Research/). In addition, the ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education has published the ASHE-ERIC Report Series Catalog since 1973. They also accept manuscripts. Information can be found at their web site (http://www.gwu.edu/~eriche/Reports/).

Jossey-Bass Publishers offer an opportunity to publish in their bimonthly On the Horizon, which draws on the expertise of contributors from a variety of disciplines. To find information on how and where to submit manuscripts, visit their web site (http://horizon.unc.edu/ horizon/).

Appendix B

Organizations Concerned with Community College Research

American Association of Community Colleges One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 410, Washington, DC 20036 http://www.aacc.nche.edu

American Mathematical Association of Two-Year Colleges Mott Community College, 1401 East Court Street, Flint, MI 48503

Association of Community College Trustees 1740 N Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036

Center for the Study of Community Colleges 1749 Mandeville Lane, Los Angeles, CA 90049

Community College Consortium 311 School of Education Building, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1259

Community College Humanities Association Essex County College, 303 University Avenue, Newark, NJ 07102

Community College Leadership Program, University of Texas at Austin College of Education, EDB 348, Austin, TX 78712-1293

ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges University of California, 3051 Moore Hall, Los Angeles, CA 90024 http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/ERIC/eric.html (email to [e-mail])

League for Innovation in the Community College 26522 La Alameda, Suite 370, Mission Viejo, CA 92691 http://www.league.org/

Appendix C

Journals and Periodicals

Community College Journal American Association of Community Colleges, One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 410, Washington, DC 20036

Community College Journal of Research and Practice Taylor & Francis, Publishers, 1010 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005

Community College Review Department of Adult and Community College Education North Carolina State University, Box 7801, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801

Community College Times American Association of Community Colleges, One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 410, Washington, DC 20036

Inquiry: The Journal of the Virginia Community Colleges Central Virginia Community College, 3506 Wards Road, Lynchburg, VA 24502

Journal of Applied Research in the Community College Department of Educational Administration and Foundations Illinois State University, 331 DeGarmo Hall, Normal, IL 61761-5900

Michigan Community College Journal: Research & Practice Schoolcraft College, 18600 Haggerty Road, Livonia, MI 48152-2696

New Directions for Community Colleges Jossey-Bass Inc., 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104

Visions: The Journal of Applied Research Florida Association of Community Colleges, Department of Educational Leadership, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

Clara V. P. Ford is assistant professor of economics and is currently serving as assistant division chair of the Social Sciences and Public Services Division of the Alexandria Campus of Northern Virginia Community College. (e-mail to [e-mail])