Dysfunctional sexual beliefs as vulnerability factors for sexual dysfunction.The effect of sexual beliefs and myths on sexual functioning, although it is receiving some attention from clinical studies, has not been submitted to systematic empirical test. Regarding clinical data, Zilbergeld's works deserve a special mention. Zilbergeld (1992, 1999) stated that men with erectile erectile /erec·tile/ (e-rek´til) capable of erection. e·rec·tile adj. 1. Of or relating to tissue capable of filling with blood and becoming rigid. 2. disorders present a set of myths and erroneous beliefs Noun 1. erroneous belief - a misconception resulting from incorrect information error misconception - an incorrect conception about sexuality that work as a vulnerability factor to the development of their difficulties: "a man always wants and is ready to have sex"; "a real man is sexually functional"; "sex is centered in a rigid penis and what we can do with it"; and "sex equals intercourse." Additionally, Wincze and Barlow (1997) identified a set of sexual myths underlying male sexual dysfunctions sexual dysfunction Inability to experience arousal or achieve sexual satisfaction under ordinary circumstances, as a result of psychological or physiological problems. with emphasis on excessively high sexual performance beliefs and erroneous ideas about sexual response and women's sexual satisfaction. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Zilbergeld (1999), a man who presents this set of erroneous beliefs about sexuality is more susceptible to developing catastrophic ideas about the potential consequences of an eventual sexual failure. Confronted with these situations, men with high beliefs in the myths mentioned above usually develop negative ideas about themselves: "I'm less than a man"; "I'm a sexual failure"; or "I will never solve this problem." These beliefs, and the subsequent negative self-concepts, not only predispose pre·dis·pose v. To make susceptible, as to a disease. these men to developing sexual difficulties, but also play a central role in maintaining the problem. Hawton (1985) presented a list of sexual myths conceptualized as predisposing factors to the development of sexual dysfunctions. In addition to the male myths similar to those proposed by Zilbergeld, Hawton called attention to a set of female myths that reflect the double standard: permissive permissive adj. 1) referring to any act which is allowed by court order, legal procedure, or agreement. 2) tolerant or allowing of others' behavior, suggesting contrary to others' standards. PERMISSIVE. but demanding for men, and repressive re·pres·sive adj. Causing or inclined to cause repression. for women. The main female sexual myths listed were "any woman who initiates sex is immoral"; "sex must only ever occur at the instigation INSTIGATION. The act by which one incites another to do something, as to injure a third person, or to commit some crime or misdemeanor, to commence a suit or to prosecute a criminal. Vide Accomplice. of the man"'; "masturbation masturbation Erotic stimulation of one's own genital organs, usually to achieve orgasm. Masturbatory behavior is common in infants and adolescents, and is indulged in by many adults as well. Studies indicate that over 90% of U.S. males and 60–80% of U.S. is dirty or harmful"; and "it is wrong to have fantasies during intercourse." Kaplan (1979), LoPiccolo and Friedman (1988), and Masters and Johnson Masters and Johnson, pioneering research team in the field of human sexuality, consisting of the gynecologist William Howell Masters, 1915–2001, b. Cleveland, and the psychologist Virginia Eshelman Johnson, 1925–, b. (1970) also mentioned conservative beliefs as a common factor to most women with sexual dysfunction. Additionally, Tevlin and Leiblum (1983) indicated primacy of affection over sexual pleasure as a typical belief among sexually dysfunctional women. Heiman and LoPiccolo (1988), in a work dedicated to orgasmic difficulties, mentioned a set of myths typical of women with sexual dysfunction. The proposed myths not only integrate beliefs related to female sexual conservatism (e.g., "decent women do not become excited with erotic material"; "feminine women do not start any sexual activity"; "vaginal vag·i·nal adj. 1. Of or relating to the vagina. 2. Relating to or resembling a sheath. vaginal pertaining to the vagina, the tunica vaginalis testis, or to any sheath. orgasms are more feminine and mature than clitoridian orgasms"), but also include dimensions related to the role of age and physical appearance (e.g., "sex is only for women under 30 years old"; "female sexual life ends with menopause menopause (mĕn`əpôz) or climacteric (klīmăk`tərĭk, klī'măktĕr`ĭk) ") and beliefs about performance demands ("normal women have orgasm orgasm /or·gasm/ (or´gazm) the apex and culmination of sexual excitement.orgas´mic or·gasm n. whenever they have sex"; "every women might have multiple orgasms"; "a functional woman can always be excited by her partner"; "something is wrong with a woman if she can't achieve orgasm easily and quickly"). The inclusion of sexual beliefs related to female performance demands (usually associated with male sexuality) challenges the supremacy of the sexual double standard. According to Heiman and LoPiccolo (1988), women as well as men suffer from the negative influence of a set of myths related to excessive and erroneous demands for sexual performance. Empirical studies Empirical studies in social sciences are when the research ends are based on evidence and not just theory. This is done to comply with the scientific method that asserts the objective discovery of knowledge based on verifiable facts of evidence. from Baker and de Silva sil·va also syl·va n. pl. sil·vas or sil·vae 1. The trees or forests of a region. 2. A written work on the trees or forests of a region. (1988), Adams et al. (1996), and Byrne and Schulte (1990) also deserve mention. Baker and de Silva, studying the list of myths proposed by Zilbergeld (1978), concluded that males with sexual dysfunction present significantly higher beliefs on these myths compared with a group of sexually functional individuals. Adams and colleagues developed a questionnaire of sexual beliefs and information (SBIQ; Adams et al.) specifically oriented to aging populations. In the same direction as the latter study, this research postulated pos·tu·late tr.v. pos·tu·lat·ed, pos·tu·lat·ing, pos·tu·lates 1. To make claim for; demand. 2. To assume or assert the truth, reality, or necessity of, especially as a basis of an argument. 3. that high belief in erroneous sexual information and myths would be related to a greater probability of developing further sexual difficulties. However, the authors did not present empirical support for this hypothesis. Additionally, Byrne and Schulte showed that erotophobia (disposition to evaluate and answer with negative affect to a set of sexual stimuli) predisposed pre·dis·pose v. pre·dis·posed, pre·dis·pos·ing, pre·dis·pos·es v.tr. 1. a. To make (someone) inclined to something in advance: individuals to develop sexual difficulties. Research conducted by Barlow and colleagues (Jones, Carpentar, Bruce, & Barlow, 1987; Sbrocco, Weiner, & Barlow, 1992) corroborated cor·rob·o·rate tr.v. cor·rob·o·rat·ed, cor·rob·o·rat·ing, cor·rob·o·rates To strengthen or support with other evidence; make more certain. See Synonyms at confirm. the role of erotophobia, indicating that sexually dysfunctional individuals present significantly higher scores on the erotophobia scale compared to sexually functional males (although causation causation Relation that holds between two temporally simultaneous or successive events when the first event (the cause) brings about the other (the effect). According to David Hume, when we say of two types of object or event that “X causes Y” (e.g. is not clear). To our knowledge, no empirical studies have tested the validity of theoretical assumptions regarding female sexual dysfunctions. The role of sexually conservative or repressive beliefs, the role of the beliefs related to age and physical appearance, or the role of beliefs related to performance demands in the development and maintenance of female sexual dysfunctions are still to be tested. We studied the sexual beliefs usually associated with sexual dysfunctions by using the conceptualization con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: proposed by Beck (1996). According to cognitive theory Conitive theory may refer to:
Electra incited brother, Orestes, to kill their mother and her lover. [Gk. Myth.: Zimmerman, 92; Gk. Lit.: Electra, Orestes] Hezekiah exhorts Judah to stand fast against Assyrians. [O.T. (Beck). In this case, sexual beliefs contain rules that define the way subjects assign meaning to sexual events. We hypothesized that whenever a sexual situation fulfils the conditions stipulated by a conditional belief (e.g., conditional belief: "a man who fails to get an erection erection /erec·tion/ (e-rek´shun) the condition of being rigid and elevated, as erectile tissue when filled with blood. e·rec·tion n. 1. is a complete failure"; situation: occasional erectile difficulty), a consistent cognitive schema (unconditional belief) would be activated (e.g., "I'm a failure"). Therefore, we expected to find that sexual beliefs might work as vulnerability factors for the development of sexual dysfunction. In order to test these hypotheses, we developed measures of sexual beliefs for males and females (Sexual Dysfunctional Beliefs Questionnaire--SDBQ male and female versions; Nobre & Pinto-Gouveia, 2000b), specifically aimed at assessing beliefs assumed to be associated with sexual dysfunction. We expected that sexually dysfunctional participants would present significantly more inadequate sexual beliefs compared to functional participants. Specifically, we expected differences regarding high sexual performance demands, female power over men, and erroneous beliefs about women's sexual satisfaction in the male sample, and sexually conservative beliefs, body image beliefs, and beliefs regarding the role of age, affection, and motherhood on sexuality in the female sample. We also tested other hypotheses, such as that men with conservative beliefs and restrictive attitudes toward sex are more likely to have erectile dysfunction Erectile Dysfunction Definition Erectile dysfunction (ED), formerly known as impotence, is the inability to achieve or maintain an erection long enough to engage in sexual intercourse. , since previous data showed no significant relationship between these beliefs and male erectile problems (Nobre & Pinto-Gouveia, 2000a). METHOD Participants and Procedure A total of 488 subjects (207 females and 281 males) participated in the study: a control sample of 392 subjects (160 females and 232 males) and a clinical sample of 96 subjects (47 females and 49 males). Participants from the control sample were recruited in different regions of Portugal by a group of volunteer students from Universidade dc Tras-os-Montes e Alto Douro. This group of students collected the sample in their hometowns throughout the country using non-random methods. Participants were contacted directly by the volunteers, who explained the purpose of the study and gave them the questionnaire with instructions. These subjects were instructed to answer the questionnaires when alone and in the privacy of their homes and then to return them by mail using pre-stamped envelopes. Subjects were not paid for their participation. The control sample was collected between September 2000 and April 2002, and the response rate was 31%. Demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. To control for the presence of sexual dysfunction among the control sample, we used the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEE IIEE Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers (Philippines) IIEE Institute of Industrial Electronics Engineering (Karachi, Pakistan) IIEE Interim Integrated Electronic Enclosure Rosen et al., 1997) and the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI FSFI Female Sexual Function Index FSFI Federazione fra le Società Filateliche Italiane (Italian: Federation of the Italian Philatelic Societies) , Rosen et al., 2000) to assess the participants' levels of sexual functioning. Since low scores on the different sexual dimensions assessed by those measures mean lower sexual functioning levels, participants who presented scores below than the cutoffs on the different dimensions assessed by the IIEF IIEF International Index of Erectile Function IIEF India Invest Economic Foundation and FSFI were excluded. This allowed us to constitute a sample of men and women without sexual dysfunction. The cutoff scores separated men and women with sexual dysfunction from sexually healthy males and females. The following cutoffs were used in the present study: for the male sample, erectile function = 22, sexual desire = 5.2, orgasmic function = 5.9, intercourse satisfaction = 7.7, and overall satisfaction = 6.9; for the female sample, sexual desire = 3.0, sexual arousal sexual arousal Horny/horniness, randy/randiness Physiology A state of sexual 'yellow alert' which has a mental component–↑ cortical responsiveness to sensory stimulation, and physical component–↑ penile sensitivity, neural response to stimuli, = 4.1, lubrication lubrication, introduction of a substance between the contact surfaces of moving parts to reduce friction and to dissipate heat. A lubricant may be oil, grease, graphite, or any substance—gas, liquid, semisolid, or solid—that permits free action of = 4.6, orgasm = 3.8, pain = 4.4, and sexual satisfaction = 3.9. With the exception of erectile function, where the optimal cutoff scores were calculated and published (Cappelleri, Rosen, Smith, Mishra, & Osterloh, 1999), the remaining cutoff scores were based on average values on the different domains of the IIEF (Rosen et al., 1997) and FSFI (Rosen et al., 2000) from samples of subjects without any history of sexual dysfunction. We calculated the cutoff scores by subtracting one standard deviation In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. from the average on the different domains of sexual function. Male and female subjects with scores below the cutoffs were excluded. The clinical sample was recruited from the sexology sexology /sex·ol·o·gy/ (sek-sol´ah-je) the scientific study of sex and sexual relations. sex·ol·o·gy n. The study of human sexual behavior. clinic of Coimbra's University Hospital, an outpatient clinic of a central hospital serving the population of Coimbra and its region. Subjects diagnosed with sexual dysfunction using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders /Di·ag·nos·tic and Sta·tis·ti·cal Man·u·al of Men·tal Dis·or·ders/ (DSM) a categorical system of classification of mental disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, that delineates objective (DSM-IV DSM-IV Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). This reference book, published by the American Psychiatric Association, is the diagnostic standard for most mental health professionals in the United States. ; American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the most influential world-wide. Its some 148,000 members are mainly American but some are international. , 1994) criteria constitute this clinical group. An unpublished structured interview for sexual dysfunctions developed by the clinical staff was used to assign a DSM-IV diagnosis. Participants answered the questionnaire after completing a clinical assessment for sexual dysfunction conducted by a group of trained sex therapists from the sexology clinic of Coimbra's University Hospital. One of the researchers gave an explanation of the purpose of the study and participants signed a consent form. Participants then answered the questionnaire by themselves in a private space and returned them directly to the member of the team present. Participants took an average of 40 minutes to answer the questionnaires. Erectile disorder (70%) and premature ejaculation Premature Ejaculation Definition Premature ejaculation occurs when male sexual climax (orgasm) occurs before a man wishes it or too quickly during intercourse to satisfy his partner. (25%) were the most common principal diagnoses in the male sample, while hypoactive sexual desire (38%), vaginismus vaginismus /vag·i·nis·mus/ (vaj?i-niz´mus) painful spasm of the vagina due to involuntary muscular contraction, usually severe enough to prevent intercourse; the cause may be organic or psychogenic. (24%), and orgasmic disorders Orgasmic disorder The impairment of the ability to reach sexual climax. Mentioned in: Sexual Dysfunction (20%) were the main female complaints. A total of 21 subjects (43%) from the female sample and 9 subjects (18%) from the male sample presented additional clinical diagnoses (secondary diagnosis). We recruited the clinical sample between September 2000 and December 2001, and the response rate was 95%. Materials The International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF). The IIEF (Rosen et al., 1997) is a 15-item, 5-point Likert-type, self-administered measure assessing different areas of male sexual functioning. A principal component analysis identified five factors: erectile function, orgasmic function, sexual desire, intercourse satisfaction, and overall satisfaction. Psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and studies supported the validity (significant mean score differences between a clinical and a control group) and reliability (Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. values of .73
and higher and test-retest from r = .64 to r = .84) of the measure.
Studies with clinical samples demonstrated its sensitivity and
specificity for detecting treatment-related changes (Rosen et al, 1997).
The measure allows the calculation of specific indices for each
dimension as well as a total sexual function index (calculated through
the sum of the specific dimensional indices), with higher scores
indicating greater levels of sexual functioning (sexual desire: 2-10,
erectile function: 1-30, orgasmic function: 0-10, intercourse
satisfaction: 0-15, overall satisfaction: 2-10, total: 5-75).The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). The FSFI (Rosen et al., 2000) is a 19-item, 5-point Likert-type scale, easily administered and scored and providing detailed information on the major dimensions of sexual function. A principal component analysis identified six factors: sexual interest/desire, sexual arousal, lubrication, orgasm, sexual satisfaction, and sexual pain. The measure presented acceptable test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument (r = .79 to r = .86), internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. (Cronbach's alpha values of .82 and higher), and validity (demonstrated by significant mean difference scores between a clinical and a control group; Rosen et al., 2000). The measure allows the calculation of specific indices for each dimension, as well a sexual function index (calculated through the sum of the specific dimensional indices), with higher scores indicating greater levels of sexual functioning (desire: 1.2-6, arousal arousal /arous·al/ (ah-rou´z'l) 1. a state of responsiveness to sensory stimulation or excitability. 2. the act or state of waking from or as if from sleep. 3. : 0-6, lubrication: 0-6, orgasm: 0-6, global satisfaction: 0.8-6, pain: 0-6, total: 2-36). Sexual Dysfunctional Beliefs Questionnaire (SDBQ). The SDBQ (Nobre & Pinto-Gouveia, 2000b) is a 40-item questionnaire assessing specific stereotypes and beliefs presented in the clinical literature as predisposing factors to the development of male and female sexual dysfunctions (Hawton, 1985; Heiman & LoPiccolo, 1988; Zilbergeld, 1992, 1999). The questionnaire presents a male and a female version, each assessing specific gender-related beliefs. The subjects are asked to identify the degree of concordance concordance /con·cor·dance/ (-kord´ins) in genetics, the occurrence of a given trait in both members of a twin pair.concor´dant con·cor·dance n. , from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), with 40 statements regarding diverse sexual issues. Psychometric studies have supported the reliability and validity of the questionnaire (Nobre, Pinto-Gouveia, & Gomes, 2003). Test-retest reliability for both male and female versions indicated statistically significant correlations (p < .05) for the total scale (r = .73 and r = .80, respectively) between two consecutive administrations of the questionnaires with a four-week interval. Cronbach's alpha of .93 for males and .81 for females supported the moderate to high internal consistency of the questionnaires. Convergent validity Convergent validity is the degree to which an operation is similar to (converges on) other operations that it theoretically should also be similar to. For instance, to show the convergent validity of a test of mathematics skills, the scores on the test can be correlated with scores indicated that the SDBQ correlated moderately with measures that assess similar concepts (Sexual Beliefs and Information Questionnaire--SBIQ, Adams et al., 1996; Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale--DAS, Weissman & Beck, 1978). Both male and female versions of the SDBQ were submitted to factor analysis (Nobre et al., 2003). A principal component analysis with Varimax rotation of the female version identified six factors accounting for 43% of the total variance: Sexual conservatism: Coitus coitus /co·i·tus/ (ko´it-us) sexual connection per vaginam between male and female.co´ital coitus incomple´tus , coitus interrup´tus is the central aspect of human sexuality This article is about human sexual perceptions. For information about sexual activities and practices, see Human sexual behavior. Generally speaking, human sexuality is how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings. , and masturbation, oral sex, and anal sex Noun 1. anal sex - intercourse via the anus, committed by a man with a man or woman anal intercourse, buggery, sodomy sexual perversion, perversion - an aberrant sexual practice; are seen as deviant deviant /de·vi·ant/ (de´ve-int) 1. varying from a determinable standard. 2. a person with characteristics varying from what is considered standard or normal. de·vi·ant adj. and sinful activities. Women play a passive, receptive sexual role, with virginity Virginity See also Chastity, Purity. Agnes, St. patron saint of virgins. [Christian Hagiog.: Brewer Dictionary, 16] Atala Indian maiden learns too late she can be released from her vow to remain a virgin. [Fr. Lit. being an important value for non-married women. Sexual desire and pleasure as a sin: Sex is a male activity, and women must control their sexual urges Noun 1. sexual urge - all of the feelings resulting from the urge to gratify sexual impulses; "he wanted a better sex life"; "the film contained no sex or violence" sex and pleasure since these are sinful experiences. Age-related beliefs: Sexual desire, pleasure, and orgasm decrease with age, especially after menopause. Body image beliefs: Body image is a central aspect of female sexuality. Denying affection primacy: Affection, love, and agreement between partners constitute the central aspect of human sexuality. Since most items in this factor presented negative loadings, higher factor scores signify lower affection primacy. Motherhood primacy: Motherhood activities are the most important female pleasure, and procreation PROCREATION. The generation of children; it is an act authorized by the law of nature: one of the principal ends of marriage is the procreation of children. Inst. tit. 2, in pr. is the main goal of any sexual experience (see Table 2). The principal component analysis with Varimax rotation of the SDBQ male version identified six factors that accounted for 49% of the total variance (Nobre et al., 2003): Sexual conservatism--coitus/procreation primacy: Sex before marriage is unacceptable, and sex has to be quick, directed to coitus, without foreplay foreplay /fore·play/ (for´pla) the sexually stimulating play preceding intercourse. fore·play n. The sexual stimulation that precedes intercourse. , with man on top, and serving procreative pro·cre·a·tive adj. 1. Capable of reproducing; generative. 2. Of or directed to procreation. goals. Female sexual power/need for sexual control: Female sexual power can be dangerous, and if men don't control their sexual urges, they will fall under women's power. "Macho" belief." Men should always be ready for sex, should satisfy all women, and should maintain an erect penis until the end of any sexual activity. Beliefs about women's sexual satisfaction: It is important to satisfy female partners, and penile penile /pe·nile/ (pe´nil) of or pertaining to the penis. pe·nile adj. Of or relating to the penis. penile of or pertaining to the penis. erection and vaginal coitus are necessary conditions to satisfy women sexually. Restricted attitude toward sexual activity: Sexual fantasies sexual fantasy Psychology Private mental imagery associated with explicitly erotic feelings, accompanied by physiologic response to sexual arousal. See Sexual desire. , oral sex, and anal sex are unhealthy or incorrect experiences. Sex as an abuse of men's power: Sex is an act of violation or abuse of woman's body by a male (see Table 3). RESULTS Female Sexual Beliefs and Sexual Dysfunction In order to study the relationship between sexual beliefs and female sexual functioning, we performed a multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. (MANCOVA MANCOVA Multivariate Analysis of Covariance ) using sexual functioning (1 = clinical group, 2 = control group) as the independent variable and the scores on the six dimensions of the female SDBQ as dependent variables. We included the demographic variables--age, marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , and educational level--in the analysis as covariables to control their effect on the dependent variables (age--Wilks's Lambda = 0.228, F [228, 1,202] = 1.49, p < .001; marital status--Wilks's Lambda = 0.788, F [24, 811] = 2.39, p < .001; educational level--Wilks's Lambda = 0.467, F [30, 930] = 6.50, p < .001). After we controlled for the effect of the demographic variables, the multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. test indicated a statistically significant effect for sexual functioning (clinical group / control group; Wilks's Lambda = 0.874, F [6, 154] = 3.69 p, < .01). As Table 4 shows, the effect of sexual functioning was statistically significant for age-related beliefs (p < .01) and body image beliefs (p < .05), as well as for the SDBQ total score (p < .05). Specifically, sexually dysfunctional females presented significantly higher scores on these SDBQ dimensions in comparison to functional women (despite low to moderate effect sizes--eta squared between .07 and .04). It is also interesting to note that the difference between the two groups regarding the belief of sexual desire and pleasure as a sin approached statistical significance (p = .08). No significant differences were found for the remaining beliefs (sexual conservatism, denying affection primacy, and motherhood primacy). To confirm these results and investigate the individual contribution of each sexual belief dimension in differentiating females with and without sexual dysfunction, we performed a discriminant dis·crim·i·nant n. An expression used to distinguish or separate other expressions in a quantity or equation. analysis. The six dimensions of the SDBQ (standardized standardized pertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures. standardized morbidity rate see morbidity rate. standardized mortality rate see mortality rate. by age, marital status, and educational level) were used as discriminant variables, and sexual functioning was used as the criterion variable. The discriminant analysis produced a statistically significant function (Wilks' Lambda = 0.818, [chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. ] [6] = 14.46, p < .05), confirming the capacity of the sexually dysfunctional beliefs to distinguish sexually dysfunctional females from their functional counterparts. A canonical correlation In statistics, canonical correlation analysis, introduced by Harold Hotelling, is a way of making sense of cross-covariance matrices. Definition Given two column vectors  and coefficient of r = .43 between the linear combination of the
discriminant variables and the criterion variable supported the moderate
discriminating power of the discriminant function discriminant functionn. Statistics A function of a set of variables used to classify an object or event. . The correlations between each of the predictive variables and the discriminant function showed that age-related beliefs (r = .81) constitute the dimension that best distinguished sexually dysfunctional from functional women. Besides this dimension, body image beliefs (r = .58), beliefs about sexual desire and pleasure as a sin (r = .41), and sexually conservative beliefs (r = .37) also presented some discriminating power. On the other hand, motherhood beliefs and denying of affection primacy showed a reduced or even null A character that is all 0 bits. Also written as "NUL," it is the first character in the ASCII and EBCDIC data codes. In hex, it displays and prints as 00; in decimal, it may appear as a single zero in a chart of codes, but displays and prints as a blank space. differentiation power (see Table 5). The means of the clinical (.48) and control (-.45) groups indicated a positive positioning of the sexually dysfunctional women in the discriminant function characterized by dysfunctional beliefs. The classification analysis revealed that 68% of the cases were correctly classified by the discriminant function (68% in the clinical group and 70% in the control group). Male Sexual Beliefs and Sexual Dysfunction For the male sample, data from the multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), using the scores on the SDBQ six dimensions as dependent variables and the demographic variables age, marital status, and educational level as covariables, controlling their effect on the dependent variables (age = 0.188, F [306, 1,124] = 1.19,p < .05; marital status = 0.854, F [24, 821] = 1.58, p < .05; educational level--Wilks' Lambda = 0.577, F [30, 930] = 4.56, p < .001), were not significant (Wilks' lambda = 0.984, F [6, 225] = 0.60, p = .73). Univariate statistics confirmed the multivariate analysis, indicating no statistically significant difference between the two groups in all dimensions of the SDBQ (see Table 6). The discriminant analysis, using the six dimensions of the SDBQ (standardized by age and educational level) as discriminant variables and sexual functioning as the criterion variable, produced a non-statistically significant function (Wilks' Lambda = 0.931, Chi-squared [6] = 4.97, p = .55). A canonical correlation coefficient of r = .26 between the linear combination of the discriminant variables and the criterion variable confirmed the weak discriminating power of the discriminant function. The analysis of the individual contribution of the SDBQ dimensions for the distinction between clinical males (dysfunctional) and control males (dysfunctional) showed that "macho" beliefs (r = .75) and beliefs about women's satisfaction (r = .71) were the most important discriminators, presenting the highest correlations with the discriminant function (see Table 5). The means of both groups in the discriminant function indicated that, whereas sexually dysfunctional participants presented a positive mean (0.24), functional subjects presented negative mean scores (-0.30), demonstrating the higher dysfunctionality of the beliefs presented by the clinical group (positive positioning in a function characterized by dysfunctional beliefs). The classification analysis revealed that 69% of the cases were correctly classified by the discriminant function (69% in the clinical group and 70% in the control group). This finding indicates that, despite the lack of statistical significance, the sexually dysfunctional beliefs presented a moderate power to distinguish males with and without sexual dysfunction. DISCUSSION Data from this study partially supported the importance of sexual beliefs as vulnerability factors for the development of sexual dysfunctions. Data showed that sexually dysfunctional females, besides presenting higher scores on the sexual beliefs total scale, also presented significantly more age-related and body image beliefs. In general, dysfunctional women endorsed the belief that the aging process, mainly after menopause, implies the decrease of desire and sexual pleasure. Some examples of these beliefs are "After menopause, women lose their sexual desire"; "As women age, the pleasure they get from sex decreases"; and "After menopause, women can't reach orgasm." The importance of body appearance as a central factor for sexual success and satisfaction was another distinctive characteristic of dysfunctional women. An example of these beliefs is "Women who are not physically attractive can't be sexually satisfied." Besides these statistically significant differences, women with sexual dysfunction also presented more sexually conservative beliefs and beliefs about sex and pleasure as a sin. That differences between the two groups in these dimensions were not statistically significant might be due to the heterogeneity het·er·o·ge·ne·i·ty n. The quality or state of being heterogeneous. heterogeneity the state of being heterogeneous. of the clinical sample. It could be that conservative beliefs and beliefs about sex as a sin are specifically associated with some but not all sexual dysfunctions. Recent data seems to support this hypothesis, showing that these dimensions are significantly related to sexual desire disorders, but not to orgasm or pain disorders pain disorder Somatiform pain disorder, see there , while age-related beliefs seem to be associated with both desire and pain disorders (Nobre, 2003; Nobre & Pinto-Gouveia, 2004). In general, these results supported some etiological etiological pertaining to etiology. etiological diagnosis the name of a disease which includes the identification of the causative agent, e.g. Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis. hypotheses about female sexual dysfunction presented in the clinical literature (Hawton, 1985; Heiman & LoPicollo, 1988; LoPiccolo & Friedman, 1988; Kaplan, 1979; Masters & Johnson, 1970). On the other hand, beliefs about motherhood and affection primacy, contrary to some etiological hypotheses (Tevlin & Leiblum, 1983), did not differentiate clinical and control females. Data from our study showed similar scores for both groups on these two beliefs. That the male studies did not present consistent significant differences between the clinical and the control groups might be due to several factors. The heterogeneity of the clinical sample mentioned above is one possible explanation. For example, we hypothesize hy·poth·e·size v. hy·poth·e·sized, hy·poth·e·siz·ing, hy·poth·e·siz·es v.tr. To assert as a hypothesis. v.intr. To form a hypothesis. that "macho" beliefs and beliefs about women's sexual satisfaction are more strongly associated with erectile disorders than with other male disorders. Ongoing research on sexual beliefs according to specific male sexual dysfunction might shed some light on this issue. A more general explanation is that having erroneous sexual beliefs does not guarantee sexual dysfunction. A man's belief that he must perform whenever and wherever or that a woman will leave him if he is incapable of having an erection does not make him dysfunctional. The development of a sexual dysfunction is not directly dependent on the presence of specific sexual beliefs, but on the fact that when exposed to sexual situations for which the belief system presents negative and catastrophic interpretations, subjects activate strong negative cognitive self-schemas. Further difficulties depend on this interaction between beliefs and sexual events. As previously mentioned, Beck (1996) conceptualized conditional beliefs as rules presented in a "if ... then" format that stipulate stip·u·late 1 v. stip·u·lat·ed, stip·u·lat·ing, stip·u·lates v.tr. 1. a. To lay down as a condition of an agreement; require by contract. b. conditions for the activation of specific cognitive schemas. In the example presented above, a man who presents the conditional sexual belief "A man who doesn't get a firm and rigid erection is a failure" will tend to react in a more negative way if, on a certain sexual occasion, his erection does not show the usual firmness or rigidity rigidity /ri·gid·i·ty/ (ri-jid´i-te) inflexibility or stiffness. clasp-knife rigidity . In this case, his sexual beliefs might work as interpretative in·ter·pre·ta·tive adj. Variant of interpretive. in·ter  pre·ta lenses, magnifying the negative
aspects of the sexual experience and making him vulnerable to develop
further sexual difficulties. Research assessing the interaction among
sexual beliefs, activation of cognitive schemas to negative sexual
events (Nobre, 2003), and automatic thoughts and emotions during sexual
activity (Nobre, 2003; Nobre & Pinto-Gouveia, 2003, in press) seems
to support these hypotheses.It should, however, be recognized that sexual beliefs and other cognitive variables are only a small, although important, aspect of the multiple factors implicated im·pli·cate tr.v. im·pli·cat·ed, im·pli·cat·ing, im·pli·cates 1. To involve or connect intimately or incriminatingly: evidence that implicates others in the plot. 2. in sexual problems. Future research, especially using longitudinal studies longitudinal studies, n.pl the epidemiologic studies that record data from a respresentative sample at repeated intervals over an extended span of time rather than at a single or limited number over a short period. and controlling medical and relationship factors, should test the predictive power The predictive power of a scientific theory refers to its ability to generate testable predictions. Theories with strong predictive power are highly valued, because the predictions can often encourage the falsification of the theory. of sexual beliefs on sexual dysfunctions. REFERENCES Adams, S. G., Dubbert, P. M., Chupurdia, K. M., Jones, A., Lorand, K. R., & Leermakers, E. (1996). Assessment of sexual beliefs and information in aging couples with sexual dysfunction. Archives of Sexual Behavior Archives of Sexual Behavior is an academic sexology journal and the official publication of the International Academy of Sex Research. Contributions consist of empirical research (both quantitative and qualitative), theoretical reviews and essays, clinical case , 25, 249-260. American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. . (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Baker, C., & De Silva, P. (1988). The relationship between male sexual dysfunction and belief in Zilbergeld's myths: An empirical investigation. Sexual and Marital Therapy, 3, 229-238. Beck, A. T. (1996). Beyond belief: A theory of modes, personality, and psychopathology psychopathology /psy·cho·pa·thol·o·gy/ (-pah-thol´ah-je) 1. the branch of medicine dealing with the causes and processes of mental disorders. 2. abnormal, maladaptive behavior or mental activity. . In P. Salkovskis (Ed.). Frontiers of cognitive therapy cognitive therapy n. Any of a variety of techniques in psychotherapy that utilize guided self-discovery, imaging, self-instruction, and related forms of elicited cognitions as the principal mode of treatment. (pp. 1-25). New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Guilford Press. Byrne, D., & Schulte, L. (1990). Personality dispositions as mediators of sexual responses. In J. Bancroft (Ed.), Annual review of sex research (pp. 93-117). Philadelphia: Society for the Scientific Study of Sex. Cappelleri, J. C., Rosen, R. C., Smith, M. D., Mishra, A., & Osterloh, I. H. (1999). Diagnostic evaluation diagnostic evaluation Workup Medtalk An evaluation used to diagnose disease Components Medical Hx, CXR or other images, collection of specimens from blood for lab analysis of the erectile function domain of the International Index of Erectile Function. Urology urology Medical specialty dealing with the urinary system and male reproductive organs. It traces its origin to medieval lithologists, itinerant healers who specialized in surgical removal of bladder stones. , 54, 346-351. Hawton, K. (1985). Sex therapy: A practical guide. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc. Heiman, J. R., & LoPiccolo, J. (1988). Becoming orgasmic: A sexual and personal growth program for women (Rev. ed rev. abbr. 1. revenue 2. reverse 3. reversed 4. review 5. revision 6. revolution rev. 1. revise(d) 2. .). New York: Prentice-Hall. Jones, J. C., Carpentar, K., Bruce, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (1987, November). Sexual attitudes and affective affective /af·fec·tive/ (ah-fek´tiv) pertaining to affect. af·fec·tive adj. 1. Concerned with or arousing feelings or emotions; emotional. 2. responding in sexually functional and dysfunctional men. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy behavior therapy or behavior modification, in psychology, treatment of human behavioral disorders through the reinforcement of acceptable behavior and suppression of undesirable behavior. , Boston, MA. Kaplan, H. (1979). Disorders of sexual desire and other new concepts and techniques in sex therapy. New York: Brunner Mazel. LoPiccolo, J., & Friedman, J. (1988). Broad spectrum treatment of low sexual desire: Integration of cognitive, behavioral and systemic therapy systemic therapy Therapeutics Any therapy that reaches target tissues via the systemic circulation . In S. Leiblum & R. Rosen (Eds.), Sexual desire disorders. New York: Guilford Press. Masters, W., & Johnson, V. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. Nobre, P. J. (2003). Sexual dysfunction: Contributions for the construction of a comprehensive model based on cognitive theory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciencias da Educacao da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal. Nobre, P. J., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2000a). Erectile dysfunction: An empirical approach based on Beck's cognitive theory. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 15, 351-366. Nobre, P. J., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2000b). Sexual Dysfunctional Beliefs Questionnaire (SDBQ). Unpublished manuscript. Nobre, P. J., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2003). Sexual modes questionnaire: Measure to assess the interaction between cognitions, emotions and sexual response. The Journal of Sex Research, 40, 368-382. Nobre, P. J., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2004). Cognitive and emotional predictors of female sexual dysfunctions. Manuscript submitted for publication. Nobre, P. J., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (in press). Emotions during sexual activity: Differences between sexually functional and dysfunctional men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior. Nobre, P. J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Gomes, F. A. (2003). Sexual dysfunctional beliefs questionnaire: An instrument to assess sexual dysfunctional beliefs as vulnerability factors to sexual problems. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 18, 171-204. Rosen, R. C., Brown, C., Heiman, J., Leiblum, S., Meston, C., Shabsig, R., et al. (2000). The female sexual function index (FSFI): A multidimensional mul·ti·di·men·sion·al adj. Of, relating to, or having several dimensions. mul  ti·di·men self-report instrument for the assessment of female
sexual function. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 26, 191-208.Rosen, R. C., Riley, A., Wagner, G., Osterloh, I. H., Kirkpatrck, J., & Mishra, A. (1997). The international index of erectile function (IIEF): A multidimensional scale for assessment of erectile dysfunction. Urology, 49, 822-830. Sbrocco, T., Weiner, D., & Barlow, D. H. (1992, November). Behavioral subtypes of dysfunctional males: Preliminary results and treatment implications. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Boston, MA. Tevlin, H., & Leiblum, S. R. (1983). Sex role stereotypes and female sexual dysfunction. In V. Franks & E. Rothbaum (Eds.), The stereotyping of women: Its effects on mental health. New York: Springer springer a North American term commonly used to describe heifers close to term with their first calf. . Weissman, A., & Beck, A. (1978). The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale. Unpublished manuscript. Wincze, J. P., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). Enhancing sexuality: A problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. approach. Client work-book. San Antonio San Antonio (săn ăntō`nēō, əntōn`), city (1990 pop. 935,933), seat of Bexar co., S central Tex., at the source of the San Antonio River; inc. 1837. , TX: Graywind Publications. Zilbergeld, B. (1978). Male sexuality. New York: Bantam Bantam Former city and sultanate, Java. It was located at the western end of Java between the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean. In the early 16th century it became a powerful Muslim sultanate, which extended its control over parts of Sumatra and Borneo. . Zilbergeld, B. (1992). The new male sexuality. New York: Batam Books. Zilbergeld, B. (1999). The new male sexuality: (rev. ed). New York: Batam Books. Manuscript accepted September 8, 2005 This research was part of a doctoral dissertation presented by Pedro Nobre to Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciencias da Educacao da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal. The study was partially supported by a grant from PRODEP Prodep Fluoxetine, see there . We would like to thank to Allen Gomes, Hospitals da Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal, for making possible the collection of the clinical sample and also for his comments and suggestions. Thanks also to D. Rijo, C. Salvador, M. Lima, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal; A. Gomes, L. Fonseca, A. Carvalheira, J. Teixeira, G. Santos Santos (sän`t  s), city (1996 pop. 412,288), São Paulo state, SE Brazil, on the island of São Vicente in the Atlantic just off the mainland. ,
J. Quartilho, P. Abrantes, A. Canhao, Hospitais da Universidade de
Coimbra The Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra (H.U.C.), in Coimbra, Portugal is a university hospital belonging to the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Coimbra. This complex is known as a centre of research with a broad range of clinical services and medical specialties. , for their suggestions and help in sample collection. Thanks
also to participants who volunteered to participate in the study.Address correspondence to Pedro Nobre, Rua Amorim de Carvalho, 97, 4460 Senhora da Horas Senhora da Hora is one of the most important parishes (freguesias) of Matosinhos city. It's a great habitational area with many houses and buildings for habitation use. , Portugal; e-mail: pedro.j.nobre@clix.pt. Pedro J. Nobre Universidade de Tras-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal Jose Pinto-Gouveia Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Control and
Clinical Samples
Control Sample
Female Male
(n = 160) (n = 232)
Age
M 30.4 35.8
Range 18-75 18-79
SD 11.4 14.3
N % n %
Marital Status
Single 92 58 95 41
Married 54 34 123 53
Divorced 6 4 8 3
Widowed 1 1 1 0
Living together 5 3 4 2
Separated 2 1 1 0
Educational Level
Analphabet 1 1 0 0
< 4 years 0 0 1 0
4 years 5 3 9 4
5-6 years 5 3 5 2
7-9 years 6 4 13 6
10-12 years 39 25 42 18
13-15 years 19 12 18 8
16 or more years 84 53 143 62
Clinical Sample
Female Male
(n = 47) (n = 49)
Age
M 28.7 43.0
Range 19-50 18-67
SD 6.7 14.4
N % n %
Marital Status
Single 11 23 13 27
Married 30 64 30 61
Divorced 2 4 1 2
Living together 3 6 5 10
Separated 1 2 0 0
Educational Level
4 years 5 11 19 39
5-6 years 5 11 12 25
7-9 years 3 6 6 12
10-12 years 15 32 11 22
13-15 years 5 10 0 0
16 or more years 14 30 1 2
Table 2. Female SDBQ Subscales and Items
Sexual conservatism
2. Masturbation is wrong and sinful
4. The best gift woman could bring to marriage is her virginity
7. Masturbation is not a proper activity for respectable women
13. Reaching climax / orgasm is acceptable for men but not for women
14. Sexual activity must be initiated by a man
17. Orgasm is possible only by vaginal intercourse
27. Sexual intercourse during menstruation can cause health problems
28. Oral sex is one of the biggest perversions
32. Anal sex is a perverted activity
Sexual desire and pleasure as a sin
15. Sex is dirty and sinful
34. Sex should happen only if a man initiates
35. There is just one acceptable way of having sex
(missionary position)
36. Experiencing pleasure during sexual activity is not acceptable in
a virtuous woman
37. A good mother must control her sexual urges
39. A woman who only derives sexual pleasure through clitoral
stimulation is sick
Age-related beliefs
5. After menopause women lose their sexual desire
6. Women who have sexual fantasies are perverted
8. After menopause women can't reach orgasm
11. In the bedroom the man is the boss
20. As women age, the pleasure they get from sex decreases
Body image beliefs
10. Women who are not physically attractive can't be sexually satisfied
12. A good mother can't be sexually active
38. An ugly woman is not capable of sexually satisfying her partner
40. Pure girls don't engage in sexual activity
Affection primacy
1. Love and affection from a partner are necessary for good sex
3. The most important component of sex is mutual affection
18. The goal of sex is for men to be satisfied
22. Sex is a beautiful and pure activity
23. Sex without love is like food without flavor
24. As long as both partners consent, anything goes
Motherhood primacy
26. Sex is meant only for procreation
30. Being nice and smiling at men can be dangerous
31. The most wonderful emotions that a woman can experience are
maternal
33. In the bedroom the woman is the boss
Table 3. Male SDBQ Subscales and Items
Sexual conservatism
2. Orgasm is possible only by vaginal intercourse
5. Women have no other choice but to be sexual subjects
9. A shorter duration of intercourse is a sign of man's power
18. In sex anything but vaginal intercourse is unacceptable
21. Vaginal intercourse is the only legitimate type of sex
24. Foreplay is a waste of time
25. Sex is meant only for procreation
26. In sex, the quicker/faster the better
32. There is only one acceptable way of having sex
(missionary position)
33. Sexual intercourse before marriage is a sin
Female sexual power
11. The consequences of a sexual failure are catastrophic
15. In bed the woman is the boss
19. A woman's body is her best weapon
27. People who don't control their sexual urges are more easily
controlled by others
29. If a man lets himself go sexually, he is under a woman's control
38. A real man doesn't need much stimulation to reach orgasm
39. A woman at her sexual peak can get whatever she wants from a man
40. The greater the sexual intimacy, the greater the potential for
getting hurt
"Macho" belief
1. A real man has sexual intercourse very often
4. Homosexuality is a sickness
6. A real man must wait the necessary amount of time to satisfy a
woman sexually
17. In sex, getting to the climax is most important
28. A real man is always ready for sex and must be capable of
satisfying
any woman
31. A man must be capable of maintaining an erection until the end of
any sexual activity
37. Sex can be good even without orgasm
Beliefs about women's sexual satisfaction
3. Penile erection is essential for a woman's sexual satisfaction
7. A woman may have doubts about a man's virility when he fails to
have an erection
16. Men who are not capable of penetrating women can't satisfy them
35. A man who doesn't sexually satisfy a woman is a failure
36. Whenever a situation arises, a real man must be capable of
penetration
Restrictive attitude toward sex
8. Repeated engagement on oral/anal sex can cause serious health
problems
12. Women only pay attention to attractive, younger men
13. It is not appropriate to have sexual fantasies during sexual
intercourse
30. Anal sex is a perverted activity
Sex as an abuse of men's power
10. Sex is an abuse of men's power
22. The quality of the erection is what most satisfies women
34. Sex is a violation of a woman's body
Table 4. Female Dysfunctional Sexual Beliefs as a Function of Sexual
Functioning (clinical group/control group): Univariate ANCOVA
Group
Clinical Control
SDBQ Dimensions (n = 37) (n = 127)
M SD M SD
F1 Sexual conservatism 16.11 6.61 13.42 4.22
F2 Sexual desire as a sin 6.81 3.48 5.41 1.36
F3 Age-related beliefs 8.76 2.99 6.50 2.34
F4 Body image beliefs 6.49 3.38 5.07 1.78
F5 Denying affection primacy 9.11 3.63 8.69 2.65
F6 Motherhood primacy 7.16 2.64 6.91 2.31
Total 45.32 13.85 37.31 8.13
SDBQ Dimensions
eta
F (1, 159) p squared
F1 Sexual conservatism 2.24 .137 .014
F2 Sexual desire as a sin 3.13 .079 .019
F3 Age-related beliefs 12.15 ** .001 .071
F4 Body image beliefs 5.78 * .017 .035
F5 Denying affection primacy 0.12 .731 .001
F6 Motherhood primacy 0.23 .630 .001
Total 6.63 * .011 .040
Note. Higher scores indicate stronger beliefs on the different
questionnaire dimensions.
* p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001
Table 5. Correlations Between Male and Female SDBQ
Dimensions and Discriminant Function Scores
(n = 100)
Female Sample
Discriminant
Function
F3 Age-related beliefs .813
F4 Body image beliefs .577
F2 Sexual desire/pleasure as a sin .408
F1 Sexual conservatism .363
F6 Motherhood primacy -.098
F5 Denying affection primacy .034
Male Sample
Discriminant
Function
F3 "Macho" belief .746
F4 Beliefs about women's satisfaction .709
F2 Female sexual power .356
F1 Sexual conservatism .304
F6 Sex as an abuse of men's power -.079
F5 Restrictive attitude toward sex .047
Note. Variables are ordered by size of correlation within function.
Table 6. Male Dysfunctional Sexual Beliefs as a Function of Sexual
Functioning (clinical group/control group): Univariate ANVOVA
Group
Clinical Control
(n = 40) (n = 195)
SDBQ Dimensions M SD M SD
F1 Sexual conservatism 16.20 6.54 11.77 4.40
F2 Female sexual power 19.88 4.80 17.15 5.06
F3 "Macho" belief 15.90 4.54 11.35 4.23
F4 Beliefs about women's satisfaction 15.65 4.92 12.07 4.22
F5 Restrictive attitude toward sex 7.60 3.23 6.01 2.73
F6 Sex as an abuse of men's power 3.33 1.62 2.65 1.36
Total 78.55 18.81 61.00 16.51
eta
SDBQ Dimensions F (1, 230) p squared
F1 Sexual conservatism .007 .935 .000
F2 Female sexual power .261 .610 .001
F3 "Macho" belief .622 .431 .003
F4 Beliefs about women's satisfaction .395 .530 .002
F5 Restrictive attitude toward sex .200 .655 .001
F6 Sex as an abuse of men's power .996 .319 .004
Total .000 .984 .000
Note. Higher scores indicate stronger beliefs on the different
questionnaire dimensions.
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