Does the Sexual Double Standard Still Exist? Perceptions of University Women.

The sexual double standard has been the focus of considerable research since the 1960s. Ira Reiss (1960), the pioneer researcher, defined the orthodox double standard as prohibiting premarital sexual intercourse for women but allowing it for men. This standard evolved into the conditional double standard in which women were permitted to engage in sexual relations only within a committed love relationship, whereas men were permitted to have as many sexual partners as they wanted without condition. In studying the double standard, researchers have generally focused on one of three main issues: sexual behavior, evaluations of men and women who engage in certain sexual behaviors, and personal preferences regarding the sexual background of hypothetical partners.

Research on the sexual behavior of men and women suggests that the double standard still influences both genders. Men have reported sexual intercourse at earlier ages (Weinberg, Lottes, & Shaver, 1995) and a greater number of lifetime sexual panners than have women (Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994).

Evolutionary psychology has been used to explain the gender differences in sexual behaviors. According to this perspective, gender differences have developed through human evolution because they are related to reproductive capacities (Weiderman, 1993). Because men have greater reproductive capacities, it is considered beneficial for them to inseminate as many females as possible to maximize the survival of their offspring (Oliver & Shibley Hyde, 1993; Walsh, 1993).

Social learning theory has also been used to explain the double standard. According to social learning theory, women are punished for behaving in sexually permissive ways by being stigmatized or isolated, whereas men are rewarded by achieving popularity or admiration for the identical behaviors (Oliver & Shibley Hyde, 1993; Sprecher, Regan, McKinney, Maxwell, & Wazienski, 1997). Under the rubric of social learning theory, sexual script theory has emerged to explain patterns of sexual behavior. In following traditional scripts, men are socialized to desire and engage in frequent casual sexual activity with multiple partners, whereas women are encouraged to limit their sexual experiences to encounters within committed, monogamous relationships (Sprecher et al., 1997).

Despite the considerable differences in men's and women's reported sexual behaviors, research specifically focused on attitudes regarding the double standard has resulted in conflicting findings. These differences may be explained by the different criteria used to measure the double standard, with one group of researchers having focused on evaluations of sexual behaviors and the other group focused on partner preferences.

One approach has involved asking participants to rate certain sexual behaviors of hypothetical men and women. Spreadbury (1982) found that women were more likely to label other women's sexual behaviors as promiscuous than men's sexual behaviors, indicating that women supported the sexual double standard. Sprecher, McKinney, and Orbuch (1987) gave subjects information about a hypothetical target's first sexual experience, and asked them to rate the target in terms of various personality characteristics. Although both male and female profiles were given negative personality evaluations if their first intercourse experience happened at a young age and in an uncommitted relationship, evaluations of females were slightly more negative.

The other approach to the double standard has measured partner preferences rather than behavioral evaluation. Researchers using this approach generally have reported a single standard of preferences for both men and women. O'Sullivan (1995) found that among men and women, highly experienced targets were perceived to be less desirable as a dating partner and as a spouse. Sprecher et al. (1997) found men and women both preferred potential marriage or dating partners to have no sexual experience rather than either moderate or extensive sexual experience. However, Oliver and Sedikides (1992) found that when it came to casual dating relationships, men were more likely than women to prefer partners who were more sexually experienced.

These findings have been interpreted in two different ways. Oliver and Sedikides (1992) concluded that men who prefer sexually permissive women for dating partners while preferring less experienced women for more committed relationships may be endorsing the double standard, in that they are willing to date "bad girls" so as to have sex with them, whereas they would not consider these same women as marriage partners. Nevertheless, these men are at least accepting of sexually experienced women for some relationships. On the other hand, Sprecher, McKinney, and Orbuch (1991) suggested that because most women are not willing to accept men with high levels of sexual experience for any type of relationship, these results indicate a reverse double standard in which men are allowed less sexual freedom than women in dating relationships.

Researchers, in measuring the double standard, have typically relied upon ratings of hypothetical targets or profiles as their primary methodology (Hynie & Lydon, 1995; O'Sullivan, 1995; Sprecher et al., 1991; Williams & Jacoby, 1989). Checklists or profiles are highly artificial, and cannot include all characteristics that are taken into account when evaluating real people in the real world. As Oliver and Sedikides (1992) have noted, sexual behavior is not judged in a vacuum. Yet, most profile studies (with the exception of Sprecher et al., 1997) have not considered the importance of sexual permissiveness in relation to other characteristics, such as personality characteristics or physical attractiveness. For example, women may prefer a man who has had few sexual partners, yet may choose to date a highly experienced man if he has other desirable characteristics.

In rating hypothetical targets in terms of desirability as dating or marital partners, usually men and women have only been asked to rate opposite sex profiles (Oliver & Sedikides, 1992; Williams & Jacoby, 1989). Thus, most researchers have focused only on between-gender differences when studying the double standard. Only a few (Hynie & Lydon, 1995; O'Sullivan, 1995) have addressed within-gender differences. Consequently, the effects found for gender are difficult to interpret, because they could be a result of gender of subject, gender of target, or an interaction between the two (Sprecher et al., 1987).

In our study we have attempted to address some of these limitations. As suggested by Sprecher et al. (1997), we measured preferences for ideal relationship partners in addition to tolerable levels of sexual experience for a dating partner. Measures of actual previous behavioral choices regarding partner selection were also included. To counter social desirability effects, following Sprecher's (1989) research design, we used a between subjects design in which one half of the sample evaluated male behavior and the other half evaluated female behavior. We also analyzed within-gender differences. Most importantly, as suggested by Sprecher et al. (1997) we included some open-ended questions to better understand participants' perceptions of the sexual double standard, their perceptions of both men and women with many sexual partners, and the motivations behind their partner preferences and choices.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this research was to study the attitudes and behaviors of university women regarding the sexual double standard. In particular, we wanted to determine if women's perceptions of the double standard would be similar to or different from their own personal acceptance or rejection of the double standard. We purposely focused on women because previous research has indicated that women generally are the ones who decide how far sexual behavior will proceed in a relationship (McCormick, 1994). Given that women are seen as the "gatekeepers" of sexual behavior, we believed that it was more critical to understand women's attitudes toward the double standard than men's. In addition, women have been found to be more judgmental of other people's sexual behavior than have men (Spreadbury, 1982).

Based on previous literature, we developed two hypotheses:

1. Women will endorse a sexual double standard in which women are judged more harshly for having many sexual partners than are men.

2. The more sexual partners women have had, the more accepting they will be of men who have had many sexual partners.

METHODS

Participants

The participants who volunteered to take part in this study were a convenience sample of 174 unmarried female undergraduate students enrolled in a first year course on Couple and Family Relations at a Canadian university. Nine of the women indicated they were lesbian or bisexual and they were not included in the analysis, thus reducing the sample to 165. The women ranged in age from 18 to 25 (M = 19.6; SD = 1.2). Thirty-nine percent had not dated in the last four weeks and 44% were involved in a steady relationship with one partner only. The women's number of previous past sexual partners ranged from 0 to 11 (M = 1.69, SD = 1.93). One third (32%) had not experienced sexual intercourse, 27% had one sexual partner, 25% had two or three partners, and 16% had four or more partners.

Measurement

Number of partners. Number of previous sexual partners was measured by the open-ended question "With how many partners have you had sexual intercourse?"

Perceived gender differences in sexual interest. Two of the underlying tenets of the double standard are that women enjoy sex less than men and are less interested in sex. Two items measured perceived gender differences in sexual interest: (a) "Women can enjoy sex as much as men do" and (b) "Women are not as interested in sex as men are." Responses ranged from (5) Strongly agree to (1) Strongly disagree. Item b was reverse coded for the analysis.

Importance of sex. Another belief underlying the double standard is that most women do not consider sex to be important. How important the women considered sex to be was measured by "How important is sex to you?" Responses for this item were: (a) Very important, (b) Somewhat important, (c) Of little importance, and (d) Not important. Responses were reverse coded for the analysis.

Perceptions of a societal double standard. Two items measured women's beliefs about societal norms regarding the sexual double standard: (a) "Women who have had many sex partners are judged more harshly than men who have had many partners," and (b) "Is there a double standard for sexual behavior (a standard in which it is more acceptable for a man to have had more sexual partners than a woman)?" Respondents were asked to explain their answer. Responses included: (a) Definitely yes, (b) Probably yes, (c) Probably not, and (d) Definitely not. To determine if the women believed there was a difference between the genders regarding enforcement of the double standard, they were asked "Who judges women who have had sex with many partners more harshly?" Responses were (a) Women, (b) Men, and (c) Men and women judge equally harshly.

Personal endorsement of the sexual double standard. In testing our first hypothesis, women's endorsement of the sexual double standard was measured by administering two versions of the same question, with one half of the subjects receiving the version for a male friend and the other half receiving the version for a female friend: "You have a very close male friend (female friend) who is looking for a casual date. He (she) has met someone whom he (she) likes and finds attractive. You know that this woman (man) has had intercourse with more than 10 different men (women). You would discourage him (her) from dating her (him)." Response choices ranged from (5) Strongly agree to (1) Strongly disagree. This between-subjects design followed procedures outlined by Sprecher (1989).

We also used a second indicator of the women's endorsement of the double standard by including an item asking for labels the women would use to describe others with high levels of sexual experience. In tandem with the previous question, the students were given one of two versions of an open-ended question which asked them to list words specifically describing either a man or a woman who has had many partners: "What words would you use to describe a man (woman) who has had many sexual partners?"

Preference for men with many or few partners. According to the double standard, men who have had many sexual partners are admired and preferred by women. Therefore, it was assumed that if the women did not prefer men with a history of many partners that they would be rejecting the double standard. Two different types of items were used to measure women's preferences for dating men who have had many or few sexual partners. The first item was "I would prefer not to date someone who has had intercourse with more than -- partners." The second item was "You meet a good-looking, charming man who really appeals to you. You are very physically attracted to him. You have heard that he has had sex with about 10 women over the last four years. You are certain that he is not infected with a sexually transmitted disease. You would go out with him." The first item was solely focused on number of partners without taking into account any other characteristics. The other item was purposely constructed so that positive personality characteristics were associated with men who had many partners. This was done to determine to what extent women were willing to accept highly experienced men if they had other desirable characteristics.

The women were also asked about their actual behaviors regarding partner choice: "Have you dated someone in the past who has had more sexual partners than you would have liked?" Responses were yes/no. Women who answered yes were asked "If yes, were you bothered by this (a) A lot, (b) Somewhat, (c) A little, and (d) Not at all."

To obtain insight regarding motivations for dating or not dating men with many partners, women were asked two open-ended questions about men with many partners. So as not to bias the responses, the participants were asked to give both positive and negative characteristics of men who had many partners: (a) "What is it about a man who has had many sexual partners that might make him a more desirable dating partner?" and (b) "What is it about a man who has had many sexual partners that might make him a less desirable dating partner?"

Procedure

The research was conducted during regular class time. The researchers stated that the study was focused on the sexual attitudes of unmarried, heterosexual women. Students were given a questionnaire that included an information sheet and a separate consent form. A questionnaire was given to everyone in the class so that all of the students would have the opportunity to view it, even if they did not fit the criteria or did not wish to hand in a completed survey. Students were informed that the questionnaire was to be completed on a voluntary basis, and that they were not obligated to hand it in. They were encouraged to sit apart from one another and, when finished, they placed their questionnaires into boxes at the front of the classroom to ensure anonymity.

Coding of Open-Ended Questions

Categories for the open-ended questions were developed by the researchers after they had reviewed all of the written comments made by the respondents. The responses were coded using these categories by two independent raters who were graduate students. The percentage agreement between the two raters was obtained for each of the questions, resulting in interrater reliability ratings ranging from .80 to .97.

It should be noted that for each question many of the respondents listed two or more words or phrases, with some of the words belonging in one category and others belonging in another category. Because of this, the total percentage for each category was more than 100%.

RESULTS

Perceived gender differences in sexual interest. Ninetynine percent of the women strongly agreed or agreed that women can enjoy sex as much as men do. Sixty-nine percent strongly disagreed or disagreed with the statement that women are not as interested in sex as men are.

Importance of sex. When asked how important sex was to them 17% of the women reported very important, 59% reported somewhat important, 17% reported of little importance and 7% reported that sex was not important to them.

Perceptions of a societal sexual double standard. The women were in almost unanimous agreement that the double standard is a pervasive influence in society. Ninety-five percent indicated that they definitely or probably believed a double standard exists (a standard in which it is more acceptable for a man to have more sexual partners than a woman). Ninety-three percent indicated that they definitely or probably agreed that women who have many sex partners are judged more harshly than men who have many sex partners. These results were reinforced by the comments the women provided when asked to explain their answers. One woman stated:

   I see and hear men and women criticize or joke harshly about women with
   many partners. But with guys, if it is acknowledged that they have had many
   partners usually men and women laugh it off or at most, lightly reprimand
   them.

The women's comments were coded under four main categories: (a) Women Penalized, (b) Men Rewarded, (c) Women Not Focused on Sex, and (d) Men Focused on Sex. The interrater reliability for the coding of these categories was .86.

Within the first category, labeled Women Penalized, 49% of the respondents indicated that women were harshly labeled and penalized for having many sexual partners. Comments included: "women have to be careful not to ruin their reputations," and "there is more gossip about women." In the second category, Men Rewarded, 48% of the respondents indicated that men were encouraged to have and rewarded for having many partners. When discussing men who have had many sexual partners, respondents noted: "guys are admired by peers," "encouraged by friends," and "guys are not held responsible." The women reported that men who had many partners were often seen as "studs," "cool," "successful," and "popular." For the third category, labeled Women Not Focused on Sex, 10% indicated that women were supposed to be less interested in sex. One woman commented: "Culturally speaking, women have been restricted into thinking that their sexual needs are not as important as mens and that [sex] is disgusting." Finally, in the fourth category, named Men are Sexually Focused, 9% of the women stated that it is natural for males to be more interested in sex: "Naturally, men seem to have a stronger (less controllable) sex drive, and act upon it."

Seven percent of the respondents made comments suggesting that the double standard was disappearing. However, there were differing opinions about why this was happening, with some believing that both men and women were judged harshly for having many partners, and others believing that neither men or women were judged harshly for this.

The women clearly believed that there are two distinct standards for the sexual behavior of men and women. Interestingly, almost one half of the women (46%) believed that it is women themselves who are the harshest judges of women's sexual behavior. Whereas 42% believed men and women were equally harsh judges, only 12% believed that men were the harshest judges of women's sexual behavior. One woman commented: "I believe there is a triple standard! Women complain that they are treated differently because they are; however, they don't hesitate to perpetuate this double standard by doing it themselves!"

Personal endorsement of the sexual double standard. To provide insight into whether the women themselves supported the double standard, the students were asked to list words they use to describe either a man or a woman who has had many partners. Almost all of the words listed for both highly experienced men and women were negative, indicating the women judged men just as harshly as they judged women. Contrary to the double standard, the vast majority of women listed only negative words to describe a highly experienced man. The negative words were coded under the main categories of (a) Sexual Predator, (b) Promiscuous, and (c) Sexually Focused. The coding interrater reliability was .80.

Forty-six percent of the sample used words which indicated that the man who had many partners was seen as a Sexual Predator. The term "player" was the most common of all the words the women selected. A player was defined as a man who uses women for his own pleasures without regard for their feelings. Other words used were "manipulative," "arrogant," and "insensitive." Forty-two percent of the sample listed terms which came under the second category of Promiscuous. These included "slut," "dirty," "sleazy," "easy," "loser," "dog," and "pig." Finally, 10% percent of the women described the male as Sexually Focused and not wanting a committed relationship: "Sex is impersonal to him--not much of an emotional intimate thing." This man was also considered a risk for infidelity.

Five percent listed words indicating that the highly experienced male had psychological problems such as "low self-esteem" and "confused." Seven percent said they did not want to make a judgement without knowing more about the person. One quarter of the women (24%) listed positive attributes, with "experienced" being the most common term. Other words were "confident" and "having fun."

The women also gave mainly negative labels for women who had many partners. The negative labels were coded under the categories of (a) Promiscuous, (b) Psychologically Damaged, and (c) Sexually Focused. The interrater coding reliability was .81. Most of the women (59%) used words which fell into Promiscuous, including "slut," "cheap," "loose," "whore," "easy," and "dirty." Twelve percent of the sample used terms suggesting a highly experienced woman was Psychologically Damaged, including "insecure," "lonely," "desperate," "needy," and "unfulfilled." Finally, 8% of the women responded with words or phrases belonging to the category Sexually Focused. The respondents felt that these women were uncommitted and focused on sex rather than the relationship.

Seven percent commented that experienced women were at greater risk of STD/HIV infection. Seven percent also reported they did not want to make a judgement without knowing more about the person.

Although most of the respondents used negative labels, 29% used positive words to describe women who had many partners. These words included "experienced," "independent," "free to make her own choices," "unashamed," "outgoing," "fun," "sexy," "open-minded," and "in touch with her own desires."

Preference for men with many or few partners. When asked to state the upper limit for the number of partners they would prefer their dating partners to have had, almost all (95%) were willing to accept a partner who had experienced intercourse with at least one partner. However, as shown in Table 1, the majority of the women preferred a man who had not had too many partners. Only 9.5% of the women stated that they would be willing to accept a man who had more than 10 partners as a dating partner. The median number of acceptable partners was a maximum of four.

Table 1. Acceptable Number of Past Sexual Partners for a Dating Partner In Percentages

Maximum number                Cumulative
of partners      Percentage   percentage

11 or more           9.5           9.5
10                  12.9          22.4
 9                    .7          23.1
 8                   2.0          25.1
 7                    .7          25.8
 6                   2.7          28.5
 5                  19.0          47.5
 4                   8.8          56.3
 3                  17.0          73.3
 2                  15.6          88.9
 1                   6.1          95.0
 0                   5.0         100.0

Note: N = 147. We purposely arranged the direction of the percentages from the highest maximum number of partners to lowest to reflect the reality that more women were accepting of men having few rather than many sexual partners.

When given more information about a potential dating partner, one half (52%) of the women agreed that they would date an attractive and appealing man who had had sex with about 10 women over the past four years, assuming he was not infected with an STD. One quarter (26%) of the women indicated they would not go out with this man, and 22% were undecided.

About one third (36%) of the women reported having dated someone in the past who had more sexual partners than they would have liked. Of these women, 25% were bothered a lot by this, 52% were bothered somewhat, and 23% were bothered only a little.

In summary, most women indicated preferring a man who has not had too many sexual partners. Yet, many indicated a willingness to date such a man if he had other appealing characteristics. The finding that one third admitted dating someone whom previously had more partners than they would have preferred reinforces that women take other characteristics besides number of partners into account.

Women were asked in two separate items what it was about a man who had many past sexual partners that could make him either a more desirable or a less desirable dating partner. Most women listed several negative attributes that they associated with a highly experienced man. Their responses were coded into four categories: (a) Casual Attitudes Toward Sex and Relationships, (b) Risk of Disease, (c) High Sexual Expectations, and (d) Sexual Predator. The interrater coding reliability was .97.

Sixty-three percent of the respondents listed words which fit into the Casual Attitudes Toward Sex and Relationships category. These women believed that highly experienced men would have casual attitudes toward sex and relationships. Comments included "wouldn't be satisfied with just me," and "I am just another notch on his belt." Within the category Risk for Disease, 55% of the women listed words expressing their concern about the greater risk of experienced men having an STD or HIV. In the category of High Sexual Expectations, 19% cited these concerns: "He would expect sex right away," and "I would worry about not living up to other partners." Finally, under the Sexual Predator category, 15% of the respondents indicated these concerns about exploitation: "takes advantage of women," "is dangerous," "lies about his intentions," "women are objects," and "scares off women."

When women were asked to specifically indicate what might make a highly experienced man a more desirable dating partner, 11% stated that there was nothing desirable about this type of man, and another 5% did not make any response. However, 84% of the women listed at least one positive attribute. These attributes were classified into the three categories of (a) Sexually Confident, (b) Appealing Personality and Appearance, and (c) Exciting Sexual Partner. The interrater coding reliability was .96.

Of those who listed desirable characteristics, the great majority by far (74%) reported words belonging in the Sexually Confident category. These women focused on sexual confidence and expertise: "He knows how to satisfy a woman," "He knows the right words and moves," "He knows exactly what to do and when to do it," "provides good sex," and "is willing to teach you things."

It should be noted, however, that although the women listed sexual experience as a positive attribute, some prefaced their comments with the qualification that sexual expertise was not that important to them.

Fourteen percent of the women gave characteristics falling under the category of Appealing Personality and Appearance. These included "popular," "attractive," and "others have found him desirable." The fact that other women might find the experienced man appealing definitely made him more desirable among some of the respondents. Finally, 12% reported that a sexually experienced man as an Exciting Sexual Partner would be "sexually adventurous," and "willing to try new things."

Hypothesis One: Women's personal endorsement of the sexual double standard. We hypothesized that women would endorse a double standard which judges women more harshly than men for having many sexual partners. To test this, one half of the women were given the item asking if they would discourage a male friend from dating a female who had 10 previous partners, whereas the other half were asked whether they would discourage a female friend from dating a male who had ten previous partners. Surprisingly, women were more likely to discourage a female friend from dating a highly experienced male than a male friend from dating a highly experienced female. The mean score for the male friend condition was 3.17 (SD = .96) and the mean score for the female friend condition was 3.57 (SD = 3.57), t(1, 163) = 2.75, p = .007, effect size = .21 (using the signal-to-noise ratio recommended by Rosnow and Rosenthal, 1996). The effect size indicates that while there is a significant gender difference in the direction opposite to that which we predicted, the magnitude of the difference is modest. Thus, the hypothesis that women would personally endorse the double standard (one which judges women more harshly than men) was rejected. Instead, these findings suggest a reverse double standard which is harsher toward men than women.

Hypothesis Two: The more sexual partners women have had, the more accepting they will be of men who have had many partners. Hypothesis Two was supported in that women who had more sexual partners were less likely to judge highly experienced men negatively. A higher number of past sexual partners was correlated with a willingness to date an attractive, charming man who had sex with 10 women over the last four years (r = .33, p = .00) and accepting a dating partner with a higher number of partners (r = .51, p = .00). The magnitude of the correlations indicates that the number of partners a woman has had is a strong predictor of their acceptance of men with many partners.

DISCUSSION

The objective of this research was to determine the extent to which university women's general perceptions and personal attitudes and behavior supported the sexual double standard. The sample included 165 women attending a Canadian University.

The first hypothesis was that women would endorse a sexual double standard in which women were .judged more harshly for having many sexual partners than were men. This hypothesis was first analyzed indirectly by examining the qualitative data regarding this issue, and then was analyzed in a directly testable manner by comparing the women's responses to discouraging a female friend from dating a highly experienced male with their responses to discouraging a male friend from dating a highly experienced female.

Although the women overwhelmingly perceived a societal double standard in which they felt women's behavior was judged more harshly than that of men, the students did not personally support the double standard. Furthermore, by asserting that sex is important to them, these women have rejected one of the fundamental tenets underlying the double standard.

Traditionally, another indicator of support for the sexual double standard has been the words used to describe men and women with many sexual partners. In this study, contrary to the double standard, the women gave mostly negative labels to both men and women who were highly sexually experienced. Interestingly, some of the words that have traditionally been used to describe the behavior of women were also used by this sample to describe men who had many partners, in particular the word "slut." This choice of words is an indication of a shift toward a more negative evaluation of men who have many partners. Men were also commonly categorized as being sexual predators. The term "player," a relatively new term not yet reported in the literature, was often used to label highly experienced men as being manipulative and exploitative.

It should be noted that the question asking for words to describe a man or a woman who has many sexual partners was preceded by the question which asked if the participants believed there was a double standard in which it was more acceptable for a man to have had more sexual partners than a woman. Given that almost all of the respondents agreed with this statement, we might have expected that the respondents would have been predisposed to offer substantially fewer negative labels attached to the men than to the women. That this did not happen indicates that our female respondents were clearly making a distinction between their perceptions of societal norms and their own feelings regarding the double standard.

The respondents believed that other women, as opposed to men, were likely the more severe judges of women's sexual behavior. Considering it has been assumed that the double standard is the product of a patriarchal culture in which men seek to limit the sexuality of women, it is interesting that a substantial portion of women would feel that women are more likely than men to control other women's sexuality.

In a direct test of the double standard, the students were asked whether or not they would discourage either a female or a male friend from dating someone who had had intercourse with more than 10 partners. Contrary to our hypothesis, the women did not personally endorse the double standard. In fact, they were more likely to discourage a female friend from dating a highly experienced male than to discourage a male friend from dating a highly experienced female. These findings again suggest that women today may be judging highly experienced men more negatively than experienced women (a reverse double standard). This might be explained by the traditional script: Men are seen as strong and capable of self-preservation, whereas women are seen as potential victims who need to be defended. O'Sullivan (1995) noted that a highly experienced male might be seen as someone who is more likely to ignore signs of resistance during a sexual encounter.

Most researchers have not made a distinction between women's preferences for level of sexual experience in a potential mate and the level of experience they are willing to tolerate given other positive attributes. Our findings suggest that many women are willing to make exceptions and date experienced men if they possess other positive qualities. The distinction between tolerable levels of sexual experience and preferred levels of sexual experience in a potential partner can perhaps explain discrepant past findings regarding the sexual double standard. Clearly, for many women personality characteristics can exert a more powerful influence over partner preferences than the level of sexual experience (Sprecher et al., 1997). Nevertheless, there are some women who will reject men who have had many previous sexual partners as potential dating partners regardless of what other positive characteristics they might possess.

As predicted in our second hypothesis, women who had more sexual partners were more likely to accept a dating partner who had more sexual experience. Because sexually experienced women are more attracted to sexually experienced men, the probability of these men having even more sexual partners in the future is heightened. As indicated in the open-ended question which asked the women to list positive aspects of an experienced man, several of the women indicated that this man could be appealing because he might have greater sexual expertise, and thus be better able to sexually satisfy his partner.

If the double standard does not, in fact, exist in society, how can we account for such different levels of sexual behavior in men and women? Perhaps men are aware of the negative stigma attached to having many partners, yet they care less than women about being judged or gaining bad reputations. Alternatively, men may believe that their male peers are supportive of sexual conquests and, consequently, they may be less concerned with how they are evaluated by women. Research is needed to determine which explanation is more accurate.

Our study has provided useful methodological contributions toward enhancing research on the double standard. The use of different types of measurement to study the double standard highlights the fact that the type of question asked can shape the responses that are obtained. For example, this study points to a clear perception of the double standard at a societal level, although its existence is not supported through women's own beliefs and values. Including open-ended items in the questionnaire was important, as these items provided a richer context for understanding women's perceptions of the double standard. Our study also addressed both real and ideal partner preferences, a distinction which is often ignored in checklist studies. Finally, in our study, unlike in much of the previous research, participants evaluated the behavior of both men and women instead of only an opposite sex partner.

Despite these contributions, there are some weaknesses in this study. For example, in designing diverse measures of the double standard, single-item measures were used rather than standardized scales.

The major weakness is the use of a convenience sample of young university women from a single class. It is important to note the limited sexual experience of this sample, as 32% had not had sexual intercourse and 27% had experienced sexual intercourse with only one person. Given the nature of our sample, the findings cannot be generalized to the larger society. To obtain a more complete understanding of the double standard, it is important that men be surveyed, as well as other groups of women who are older and not enrolled in a university.

The item asking who judges women who have had many sexual partners more harshly might be criticized for not taking into account the fact that some people may not judge these women harshly. Nevertheless, research findings, including those in this study, have determined that most people do judge others who have had many partners in a negative light, and that women are more likely to do so than men (Spreadbury, 1982).

The item which asked women if they would go out with a man who had 10 partners suggested that they would be certain he was not infected with an STD. Of course, in real life it is unrealistic to make such an assumption. However, it has been found that many people assume they can differentiate between people who are likely to have an STD and those who do not, and believe that by being more selective in their partner choices they are reducing the risk of infection (Herold & Mewhinney, 1993).

This study brings to light many new research questions. As discussed previously, the distinction between the existence of a societal double standard and one that is endorsed on a personal level should be further explored. To what extent are women's sexual behaviors affected by their perception that women are evaluated more harshly than their male peers? Further, why is there a belief that men are controlling women's sexuality, yet women perceive other women to be the harshest judges of their own behavior? Given the finding that most of the women gave negative labels to men with a history of many partners, it is important that future research determine whether other samples of women have similar judgements. It would also be important to determine the extent to which men themselves may be using these negative labels. In terms of partner preference, researchers should study both a woman's preference for a certain level of sexual experience in a partner as well as her actual choices in terms of partner selection. Researchers need to be aware that although both men and women may prefer a partner with limited experience, many are willing to tolerate or accept someone who has exceeded their preferred level of experience if that person has other desirable characteristics. Finally, researchers should consider more creative methodological approaches to measuring the double standard. For example, respondents might be asked about recent examples from their gossip with friends about persons having many partners.

In conclusion, the finding that most of the women did not personally support the double standard appears to offer more support for learning theory rather than for evolutionary theory in explaining the double standard. For evolutionary theory to be supported, presumably most women would be accepting of the double standard and have a more positive view of men who have had many partners. How would evolutionary theory account for the fact that women differ in their acceptance of men's having many partners depending upon their own level of sexual experience?

Obviously more research is needed, with diverse samples including both men and women before we can make more definitive conclusions about which theoretical approach appears to be more valid. We hope that the use of different measurement strategies illustrated in this study will encourage other researchers to adopt more creative approaches in their measurement and analysis of the complexities of the sexual double standard.

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Manuscript accepted May 10, 1999

Address correspondence to Edward S. Herold, Department of Family Relations and Applied Nutrition, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1; e-mail: [e-mail].

Robin R. Milhausen and Edward S. Herold University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada