Do's and Don'ts for Eliminating Hidden Bias.

As children arrive in Ms. Sanchez s classroom, she greets each one and collects their homework. Margie enters the class and hands Ms. Sanchez her homework.

"Thank you, Margie," says Ms. Sanchez. "You always bring your homework back on time - and what neat handwriting!" Margie beams with pride.

Rick enters with his homework. Glancing over his paper, Ms. Sanchez comments, "Good, Rick. It looks like you've got them all right again! I think math is one of your best subjects." Rick chooses to work on an enrichment math worksheet while waiting for class to begin.

As Ms. Sanchez collects the children's field trip forms, Elaine approaches her and begins to discuss her lost cat. Ms. Sanchez listens intently, but soon Matthew arrives at her desk. At first he waits, but then begins to jump up and down on one foot. He walks between Elaine and Ms. Sanchez and begins explaining about his lost field trip form. In an effort to address this problem, Ms. Sanchez tells Elaine to return to her seat and asks Matthew where he thinks his form might be.

Once the morning tasks are completed, Ms. Sanchez begins the class with a discussion about the field trip. "What have we already learned about the fire station?" she asks. Carmen raises her hand and Ms. Sanchez calls on her. "We're going to one tomorrow, "she says.

Ms. Sanchez: "Okay. Carlos?"

Carlos: "We will see firemen there."

Ms. Sanchez: "Right. And what is their job, Carlos?"

Carlos: "They stay there in case there is afire and they have to put it out."

Ms. Sanchez: "Very good. Since we know the firemen must stay at the fire station in case there is afire, what might we expect to see there?"

Several children raise their hands, but before Ms. Sanchez can call on someone, Elisa calls out: "We'll see things like in our house."

Ms. Sanchez: "Remember the rule. Wait until you're called on."

Michael raises his hand and is acknowledged: "We might see beds, and a kitchen."

Daniel calls out: "And a T. V. and Nintendo so the firemen have something to do while they're waiting to put out fires."

Ms. Sanchez: "That's right. We might see all those things."

Ms. Sanchez then directs children toward learning centers that reflect the fire station theme. Four boys rush to the block/manipulative center and begin cooperatively building afire station with Legos[TM].

Four other children enter the dramatic play area, which has been converted into afire station. The area has appropriate dress-up clothes and hats, and pictures of firemen in a variety of roles. As Constance pulls on the fire boots and hat, Romara says, "You can't wear those. Girls can't be firemen. You'll have to cook for us."

Ms. Sanchez's attention is pulled toward a loud discussion in the discovery center, where she resolves a disturbance between two boys. Then LaToya, frustrated and almost in tears, says, "I want my fire station to stand up but it keeps falling over." Ms. Sanchez sits down and works on the project as LaToya watches with relief.

An observer in this classroom might note that Ms. Sanchez seems to care about her students, and that she believes children learn by being involved. She greets each student at the door, plans field trips related to the current unit of study, uses a learning center approach that incorporates a variety of materials and activities, engages children in discussions and shows concern for their individual problems. Her concern is genuine and she appears to treat her students equally.

In the above scenario, however, Ms. Sanchez did not treat all students the same. She treated the boys in her classroom very differently from the way she treated the girls. The bias exhibited was so subtle that most teachers and other adults would not easily recognize it. That is why gender bias has been labeled "the hidden bias."

More than 20 years of research on teachers' interactions with children show that teachers do treat girls and boys differently and that those differences have a startling effect on the children. Adolescence is when the effects of long-term gender bias become most apparent (Sadker & Sadker, 1994), as exhibited in declining academic performance and diminished self-esteem. Early on, girls and boys learn stereotyped gender roles, which are reinforced throughout their school careers with damaging results.

For several reasons, teachers, administrators and parents may not know how prevalent gender bias is in early education. First, the habit of treating people differently according to gender is common and widely accepted; thus, it often goes unnoticed or unquestioned. Second, exposure to bias begins long before formal schooling. By the time children enter school, they have already learned to behave according to stereotypes. Finally, well-meaning teachers and parents do not always recognize the bias exhibited in their own behavior and, therefore, do not attempt to change it.

This article provides preschool and primary grade teachers with guidelines to help eliminate overt, as well as less obvious, forms of gender bias. The list of "Do's and Don'ts" can help teachers become aware of common teaching practices that perpetuate bias. Some of the mistakes made by Ms. Sanchez in the opening scenario will be addressed. The first step toward making a change is being aware of gender bias and accepting that it is a significant problem in classrooms.

DO'S AND DON'TS FOR ELIMINATING GENDER BIAS

Do give girls and boys equal time and attention. Don't give boys more attention because of their activity levels.

Teachers call on and interact with boys more than girls (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). This is probably not intentional. During the numerous teacher-student interactions that occur over the course of the school day, boys use creative and effective techniques to catch the teacher's attention. Boys quickly raise their hands to respond or contribute to discussions, wave their hand around and up and down, change the arm they have raised when it gets tired, jump out of their seat and make noise or plead with the teacher to call on them. Girls, however, raise their hand but will soon put it down if they are not acknowledged. As a result, teachers call on boys and interact with them most of the time, while girls' passive, compliant behavior often means they are ignored.

Preschool and primary grade children can get the teacher's attention in a variety of ways: hand raising, tapping, pulling, crying, jumping, screaming, creating a disturbance or acting out aggressively. In the opening scenario, Matthew gets the teacher's attention by first jumping up and down, then walking between Ms. Sanchez and Elaine, and finally by verbally interrupting their conversation. Teachers should record who is being called on the most, and observe what kind of behavior gains these children the majority of the attention.

Do give girls and boys equal time to respond in discussions. Don't give preferential treatment.

May Budd Rowe (1974), a pioneer in the study of wait time, concluded that when teachers wait 3 to 5 seconds for a response, the students' answers are longer and of higher quality, more students will participate in discussions and children's confidence increases. Wait time sends a message to students that teachers are confident students will have a useful response, and that teachers are willing to wait for it.

Girls will find the 3 to 5 seconds of wait time especially beneficial because they are more likely to formulate their answers cognitively before they verbalize them (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Unfortunately, teachers do not give girls the extra time they need. In fact, they usually allow girls less wait time than they do for boys. When a girl does not respond immediately to a question, teachers will quickly call on another student. In contrast, teachers allow boys the suggested 3 to 5 seconds of wait time to respond. Perhaps teachers are trying to avoid embarrassing girls. Unfortunately, they set up a pattern of behavior that will be repeated over and over.

In addition to allowing boys more time to respond, teachers often extend boys' answers by asking a follow-up question or by asking them to support their previous response. Girls are more likely to receive an "accepted" response from teachers such as "Okay" or "Uh-huh." In the opening scenario, Ms. Sanchez extended Carlos' answer by asking him a second question. Carmen's answer prompted only the comment "Okay." These behaviors send a very negative message about the importance of girls' contributions to class discussions.

Do make the same rules apply to both girls and boys. Don't allow boys to call out answers while reminding girls to follow the rules.

Teachers tolerate more calling out from boys than from girls. Boys call out answers (when the teacher does not call on them) eight times more often than girls do (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Teachers often respond to boys' calling out, thus reinforcing the behavior. When girls call out, however, teachers are more likely to remind them that they are not following the class rules. In the opening scenario, Elisa enthusiastically responds to Ms. Sanchez's question during the class discussion about the fire station. Rather than accepting Elisa's contribution, however, the teacher reminds her to follow the class rule that she should first be recognized by the teacher before answering. Yet when Daniel excitedly blurts out an answer, the teacher rewards his response. Over time, this inequity gives the message that what girls have to say is not as important as boys' contributions. The hidden inference is that it is more important for girls to comply with rules. As a result, girls receive fewer opportunities to participate in class discussion, less feedback from teachers, less time to respond to questions and more reminders not to call out answers. When this occurs over a period of time, girls stop trying to contribute to class discussions.

Do give girls and boys the same opportunities. Don't segregate for classroom duties, competition or organization.

During early childhood, boys' and girls' gross motor skills are equally advanced. Teachers, however, tend to assign classroom duties according to gender. No logical reason exists for assigning lifting and carrying tasks to boys while assigning girls tasks that require no physical exertion. This distinction between task assignments reinforces inaccurate stereotypes about girls' and boys' abilities.

Using gender to divide the class for competitive games or activities is also inappropriate. Teachers should ask themselves, "Would it be appropriate to identify teams by ethnicity or some other physical attribute?" Teachers who divide children into groups by gender would immediately see the inappropriateness of setting up a competition between children who are slender and those who are not. One group of kindergarten children formed a "peanut butter and jelly line" at the teacher's request. The children dutifully lined up in a boy, girl, boy, girl sequence. The teacher saw no harm in this practice until she was asked if it would be appropriate to line children up according to skin color and refer to it as the "Oreo cookie line." Teachers need to reevaluate their customary practices and question their appropriateness.

Do praise both girls and boys for their ability. Don't praise girls only for appearance.

In one area females usually receive more attention than boys - physical appearance. Girls receive compliments more often than boys on their clothing, hairstyle and overall appearance (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). This emphasis on appearance also influences how their school work is evaluated (Dweck, Davidson, Nelson & Enna, 1978). Girls receive praise for neatness while boys receive recognition for academic achievements. Ms. Sanchez complimented Margie on her neat handwriting, while praising Rick for his math abilities. With such different kinds of praise, teachers send implicit messages to students about what is important, valued and recognized; for boys it is learning and for girls it is appearance. Young children value their teachers' praise and try hard to win their approval. Girls and boys quickly learn the different means to this end.

Do challenge girls and boys. Don't promote learned helplessness in girls.

At school, as well as at home, adults challenge boys to find solutions to problems while they yield to girls' requests for assistance (Rothbart & Rothbart, 1976; Sadker & Sadker, 1994). While adults may feel they are being helpful and alleviating anxiety when they assist rather than challenge girls, they are actually sending out negative feedback that tells girls, "I know you are not capable, therefore I will help you." LaToya exhibited learned helplessness when she expressed her frustration about her art project to Ms. Sanchez. Rather than express her confidence in LaToya's abilities (as she did with the boys in the block center), Ms. Sanchez made the common mistake of doing the project for LaToya as LaToya passively watched. This learned helplessness (Dweck & Elliott, 1983) results in girls showing less persistence and giving up more often. They develop a low sense of self-esteem and higher expectations for failure. These feelings increase over time and are believed to be largely responsible for girls' diminished achievement in middle school. In order to protect themselves from more failure, girls eventually choose less demanding courses and careers.

Do use non-biased language, titles and labels. Don't use the pronoun "he" when referring to inanimate objects or unspecified persons.

Language helps children learn about gender roles. The English language, unfortunately, presents "maleness" as the norm, and children interpret the predominance of male terms to mean there are more males than females (Sheldon, 1990). They also interpret labels (such as policeman) literally and use them to determine which toys, activities, behavior, roles and jobs are acceptable according to one's gender. The teacher and children used the term "fireman" consistently in the opening discussion and the well-stocked dramatic play area only exhibited pictures of male firefighters. This reinforced Romara's stereotypes about men's and women's roles. To provide all children with equal access to the myriad of life choices, teachers should use language that does not perpetuate bias. Examples of nonbiased labels for careers typically addressed in early education include "letter carrier," "police officer" and "firefighter." If teachers are not familiar with a nonbiased term they may consult The NonSexist Word Finder: A Dictionary of Gender-Free Usage (Maggio, 1987), or ask the children to suggest "fair" terminology.

Do check to see how children spend their time. Don't let children miss valuable experiences.

Children need to be encouraged to take part in a variety of activities over the course of a school day. It is vital to make available materials and activities that will lay the foundation for young children's later learning. Blocks, Legos[TM], Tinker Toys[TM] and Lincoln Logs[TM], for example, require exploration, experimentation and discovery. Play with these materials provides practice for skills that will be later needed for understanding mathematical and scientific concepts. Dramatic play experiences promote the development of language, role-playing skills and imagination. Both boys and girls need ample time with a variety of materials and activities to be successful in later academic work. Most of the children in Ms. Sanchez's class "voluntary segregated" themselves in the learning centers. The boys in the class dominated the block and discovery center, for example.

Derman-Sparks (1989) suggests that teachers observe and record children's play choices over two weeks. If their play choices tend to be divided along gender lines, teachers should reorganize the environment by duplicating popular areas and introducing additional materials.

Do plan activities to specifically address the issue of gender. Don't ignore children when they make sexist remarks.

Teachers should talk openly with children about "fair and unfair" treatment. Teachers are in an excellent position to gently challenge children's misconceptions and stereotypes about gender. They can plan activities that demonstrate males' and females' similarities, such as making a class book celebrating things that both girls and boys can do. Each page of the book could begin with the statement "Both girls and boys can . . ." and each child can finish the statement and illustrate the page.

Children's sexist remarks should not go unnoticed or unchallenged. Teachers should discuss the incident as soon as possible with the children involved, but avoid simply preaching about the inappropriateness of the incident. Romara was unfair to Constance when he told her she must cook for the firefighters rather than play the role of firefighter, yet he was expressing what he believed to be correct. It was Ms. Sanchez's responsibility to step in and provide children with another perspective.

Do provide children with bias-free role models. Don't perpetuate stereotypes through instructional materials.

Teachers can support their gender bias-free environment by showing children role models that reflect this position. Role models may include people from the community who have nontraditional careers or family members who talk with the class about the nontraditional responsibilities in the home.

Visual displays can also be used to present role models to children. Commercial visual materials should be checked for bias. Teachers can create their own displays that depict males and females engaged in similar recreational activities, as well as similar jobs at home and work. Pictures can also be used to show how all people, regardless of gender, experience the same emotions.

Including children's literature in the curriculum is an excellent way to provide positive role models. Teachers should first review books in their class libraries using a resource such as Guidelines for Selecting Bias-Free Textbooks and Storybooks (Council on Interracial Books for Children, 1980). Next, they should add books that represent a fair number of male and female characters. Finally, books should show nontraditional main characters such as adventurous, risk-taking females and nurturing males. Ms. Sanchez had an excellent opportunity during the unit on firefighters to stress that women can become firefighters or choose any other profession. This idea could have been reinforced through children's books, picture displays and by inviting people with nontraditional careers to visit the classroom.

Conclusion

Although research on gender bias in education dates back more than 20 years, it is still rampant in classrooms today. Teachers may be unaware of bias in their interactions with boys and girls or deny that it exists. The author hopes these suggestions will encourage teachers to examine their own behavior in regard to differential treatment of boys and girls. By reviewing the list and supporting information, teachers can become more knowledgeable about this hidden bias and learn how to change their behavior to provide the best education for all children.

References

Council on Interracial Books for Children. (1980). Guidelines for selecting bias-free textbooks and storybooks. New York: Author.

Derman-Sparks, L. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum: Tools for empowering young children. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dweck, C., Davidson, W., Nelson, S., & Enna, B. (1978). Sex differences in learned helplessness II: The contingencies of evaluative feedback in the classroom, III. An experimental analysis. Developmental Psychology, 14(3), 268-276.

Dweck, C., & Elliott, E. S. (1983). Achievement motivation. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology Vol. 4: Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed.)(pp. 643-691). New York: Wiley.

Maggio, R. (1987). The non-sexist word finder: A dictionary of gender-free usage. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Rothbart, M. K., & Rothbart, M. (1976). Birth-order, sex of child and maternal help giving. Sex Roles, 2, 39-46.

Rowe, M. B. (1974). Wait-time and rewards as instructional variables, their influence on language, logic and fate control. Part One: Wait-time. Journal or Research in Science Teaching, 11(2), 81-94.

Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America's schools shortchange girls. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Sheldon, A. (1990). "Kings are royaler than queens": Language and socialization. Young Children, 45(2), 4-9.

Karyn Wellhousen is Assistant Professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of New Orleans, Louisiana.