Directory of African-Appalachian musicians.

The aim of this guide is to fix significant positions for musical activity onto specific portions of the landscape, with a view to assisting future research. It is not intended to fulfill the tourist expectation of finding, say, that "Blind Boy Fuller slept here." Therefore, it does not record where a particular artist appeared on one night of a whirlwind one-night tour, but if that same artist habitually played in the location for decades, it can be hoped that he or she will be found here.

The intention is to set down, so far as can be known at this remove, the main places where particular Appalachian musicians (specifically African Americans) were born, spent their lives, learned from others, performed, influenced others, or died. African-American churches, so important in black communities and frequently the location of significant musical activity, have been included when they could be identified definitely.

There has been an attempt to date musicians' activity and to point to other locations within the guide that they may be found; suggestions for enhancing the simplicity and improving the presentation of the guide are welcomed. The usual magazines and references have been consulted, albeit with inevitable omissions by the compiler, but the work also largely draws on substantial original research in the indexed census records of 1920 and 1930.

The definition of "Appalachia" chosen is that promulgated by the Appalachian Regional Commission, with the proviso that certain Virginia Piedmont and Valley cities and counties that were initially included in the region by the Appalachian Regional Commission have been reincorporated.

Attempts have been made to avoid the use of abbreviations, but some are so pervasive as to require their usage.

COGIC Church of God in Christ

AME African Methodist Episcopal (Church)

AMEZ African Methodist Episcopal Zion (Church)

The directory is presented alphabetically by state, then by county, and then by city. In some cases, there is additional general information that is pertinent to either a state or a county preceding the presentation of the next category. For example, the Alabama state heading is followed by information about songs that mention the state, sociological trends that influenced the music, important performers that hailed from the state, and demographic statistics; then the county listings begin.

Alabama

Alabama has been an important state for gospel music but, in recent decades, is less influential as a source of blues music.

The traditional song "Alabama Bound" has the sense more of rambling than of specifically going to Alabama. Examples include "'Bama Bound Blues" by Ida Cox, Papa Charlie Jackson, and Charlie Patton; "Alabama Bound" by Bowlegs (Library of Congress); "Alabama Bound" by Uncle Rich Brown.

Apart from "Alabama Bound," a number of songs mention the state, including "Alabama Mis-Treater" by Davenport and Carr (Okeh 8306, recorded March 11, 1926), "Alabama Strut" by Cow Cow Davenport and Ivy Smith (Vocalion 1253, recorded July 16, 1928), "Alabama Mistreater" by Cow Cow Davenport (Vocalion 1227, recorded October 25, 1928), "The Blues Singer from Alabam" by Bessie Brown (Brunswick 4346, recorded ca. April 1929), "Alabammy Mistreated" by Iva [Ivy] Smith (Gennett 7231, recorded June 7, 1930), "Alabama Scratch" by the Harum Scarums (Paramount 13054, recorded ca. January 1931), "Alabama Hustler" by Sam Tarpley (Gennett unreleased, recorded August 30, 1930, and Paramount 13062, recorded ca. January 1931), and "I've Got a Man in the 'Bama Mines" by Sweet Pease Spivey (Bluebird B-7224, recorded October 11, 1937), which inspired Jazz Gillum's "answer," "I'm That Man Down in the Mine" (Bluebird B-7718, recorded June 16, 1938).

Although the ravages of the boll weevil were ultimately felt harder through the Black Belt of central Alabama than in most other locations, they came later than in states to the West and did not reach a peak until around 1922. The impact of the boll weevil therefore cannot explain the district's failure to develop as a strong blues center along the lines of the Yazoo Delta of Mississippi.

The huge exodus of tenant farmers from the southern states also seems to have begun at least a decade earlier in Alabama than in Mississippi. The land value of Alabama farmland in black hands was also considerably lower than its counterpart in Mississippi. Perhaps the conditions of life were harsher in Alabama, but more likely, the exodus became an economic necessity some years earlier than it did in Mississippi.

There is some evidence that the Black Belt had earlier been a center for blues music. Ike Zinnerman, from southern Alabama, moved to Mississippi and was an influence in the early 1930s upon Robert Johnson. There is a blues piano tradition evident, perhaps especially in the Anniston area.

At first sight, the obvious music center of the state is Jefferson County, including the county seat of Birmingham and the mining center of Bessemer. Perhaps because of the concentration of coal mining, by analogy with Wales, the music of the area emphasized singing, particularly group singing. The populace leaned heavily toward religious music, and Birmingham was an early center for quartet singing groups.

Performers thought or known to be from somewhere in the state include the Alabama Sheiks, The Amerson Children, Boss Clark, the Rev. Edward Clayborn, John Daniels, Evangelist Singers of Alabama, Napoleon Fletcher, A. C. Forehand, Blind Mamie Forehand, The Golden Voices of Alabama, Warren Grey, Eddie Harris, Jimmy Lee Harris, Will Henley, possibly Papa Harvey Hull, Isaiah "Little Shot" Jones, the late Willie Lyons, Eddie "King" Milton, Mary Lou "Mae Bee May" Milton, A. B. Stanton, John Sykes, Arthur Tucker, and Odelle Turner.

As of 2003, the following thirty-seven counties fell within the purview of the Appalachian Regional Commission: Bibb (1920 black population of 7,817), Blount (1,418), Calhoun (12,089), Chambers (19,724), Cherokee (2,079), Chilton (3,963), Clay (3,179), Cleburne (735), Colbert (11,152), Coosa (5,806), Cullman (443), De Kalb (771), Elmore (11,944), Etowah (7,528), Fayette (2,481), Franklin (1,418), Hale (17,896), Jackson (3,008), Jefferson (130,391), Lamar (2,850), Lauderdale (8,117), Lawrence (6,739), Limestone (9,628), Macon (19,614), Madison (17,483), Marion (621), Marshall (1,287), Morgan (7,736), Pickens (12,324), Randolph (5,936), St. Clair (4,449), Shelby (7,044), Talladega (17,398), Tallapoosa (10,070), Tuscaloosa (19,780), Walker (8,190), and Winston (81).

In 1920, the thirteen Appalachian counties in the state with urban populations--more than 2,500 people living in an incorporated town--were Calhoun (42.6% urban), Chambers (12.1%), Colbert (32.9%), Etowah (50.0%), Jefferson (66.5%), Lauderdale (26.5%), Limestone (10.6%), Madison (15.5%), Morgan (30.9%), Randolph (14.2%), Talladega (16.0%), Tuscaloosa (22.3%), and Walker (11.7%).

The southwesterly trending hills associated with the Appalachian Mountains occupy the eastern half of the Appalachian region, while the Tennessee Valley and surrounding rolling hills occupy the western half. The latter area comprises Colbert, Cullman, Fayette, Franklin, Lamar, Lauderdale, Lawrence, Limestone, Madison, Marion, Morgan, Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Walker, and Winston counties.

Calhoun County

Willie Guy Rainey was born in Calhoun County in 1901.

Anniston (city, 11,821 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Calvin Bostick, Cow Cow Davenport, James Harmon, and Lucky Millinder. Location (2002) of Victory Headquarters COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Charles Gregory Sr.); location (2002) of Zion Temple COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Noco Walls Sr.).

Hobson City (town, 814 black residents in 2000). Celebrated by Cow Cow Davenport in "Hobson City Blues."

Clay County

Ashland (city, 407 black residents in 2000). Possible base for Brownie Stubblefield.

Colbert County

Leighton (city, 468 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Percy Sledge.

Muscle Shoals (city, 1,689 black residents in 2000). Possible birthplace of Emerson Houston (ca. 1895). Muscle Shoals has been a site for soul recordings, including performers such as Lattimore Brown and Aretha Franklin.

Tuscumbia (city, 1,768 black residents in 2000). Residence of Henry Hankins. Location (2002) of New Life COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Larry Anderson).

Cullman County

Hanceville. Birthplace of Candi Staton.

De Kalb County

Fyffe. The Alabama Sacred Harp Singers, possibly a white group, recorded at Fyffe circa the 1970s.

Elmore County

Santuck. Location (2002) of Sweetwater Baptist Church.

Speigner. Will "Stovepipe" Bennett recorded gospel in Speigner in 1934.

Wetumpka (1,661 black residents in 2000). Residence of the Thrasher Wonders and presumably of Lee Fields. Location of Robert Henderson of WAPZ Radio (2001).

Etowah County

Gadsden (city, 13,252 black residents in 2000). Residence (and birthplace in 1930) of Jerry McCain and his band The Upstarts, of his brothers Roosevelt McCain and Walter McCain, and of Chris Collins. Willie Hightower of Too Late Music, 900 Central Avenue, Gadsden, Alabama 35901 (1974) may be of interest.

Fayette County

Fayette (city, 1,151 black residents in 2000). Residence (2002) of Elston Driver (shaped-note singer). Location (2002) of McConnell Chapel.

Austin. Childhood residence of Ethel Caffie.

Elveston. Residence (1930) of Elmer Fletcher (born ca. 1909); and Luther Fletcher (born ca. 1914).

Montgomery. Location (2001) of Mt. Zion Missionary Baptist Church; and St. John Missionary Baptist Church.

Oak Hill. Birthplace (1941) of white country musician Charlie McCoy. Place of death (1953) of white country musician Hank Williams Sr.

Red Star. Residence (1930) of James R. Pryor.

Franklin County

Slickrock Ford [sic] may be a location referred to by Lucille Bogan in "Hungry Man's Scuffle."

Hale County

Greensboro (1,663 black residents in 2000). P. Dunn, M. A. Gooden, and Julia Johnson were all recorded at Greensboro, which was the birthplace of Little Sonny Willis. Location (2003) of St. Thomas AME Church.

Newbern (178 black residents in 2000). Possible location of Jimmie Lee (1920) (alias Barefoot Bill from Alabama).

Jackson County

Scottsboro (city, 788 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Noel Strong.

Slick Rock Hollow [sic] may be a location referred to by Lucille Bogan in "Hungry Man's Scuffle."

Jefferson County

Jefferson County is the birthplace of Annie Bailey, John Anderson Jr., Inez Andrews, Jean Austin, Dud Bascomb, Paul Bascomb, C. L. Blast, Prof. Alex Bradford, Charlie Bridges, Piney Brown (Columbus Perry), Jimmy Carter (1932), Nell Carter, Jimmy Cheatham, Mitty Collier (1941), Birmingham George Conner, Gene Connors, Sam Dees, Joe Duskin, Good Rockin' Charles Edwards, Dennis Edwards, Wilbert Ellis, Bedile Goldsmith (of the Mighty Clouds of Joy), John Grimes, Joe Guy, Wilbur Harden, Roger Hatcher (1946), Shelton Hemphill, Minnie Hicks' husband, Ace Holder, Dennis Irwin, Gus Jenkins, Eddie Kendricks, Frederick Knight, Sam Lay, Shorty Long, M. Lillian McGriff, Bobby Nunn, Odetta, Avery Parrish, King Porter (1916; James A. Pope), Carl Pruitt, Bobby Scott, David Sea, the Rev. Charles Taylor, Bruce Upshaw, Billy Valentine, Don Varner (1943), Eddie Ware, Hibert "Alabama" Watson, James "Piano 'C' Red" Wheeler, Jody Williams, Paul Williams (of the Temptations), and Leola B. Wilson.

Jefferson County landmarks are referred to in numerous songs, including "Jefferson County" (composed by Sid Harris), recorded by Priscilla Stewart (1926) and Bo Weavil Jackson (1926; issued as performed by Sam Butler); "Pratt City Blues" by Bertha "Chippie" Hill (1926 and 1929) and the same title by "Jabo" Williams (1932); "Third Alley Blues" by Iva [Ivy] Smith (1927); "Snatch It Back Blues" by Buddy Boy Hawkins (1927); "Keep Your Man Out of Birmingham" by William Harris (1928); "Frisco Leaving Birmingham" by George "Bullet" Williams (1928); "Big Rock Jail" by Barefoot Bill (1929); "Seventh St. Alley Strut" by Marshall Owens (1931); "45 Pistol Blues" by Walter Roland (1935); "Eighth Avenue Blues" by Peanut the Kidnapper (1937); "Bessemer Blues" by Tampa Red (1939); "Birmingham Bounce" (composed by "hillbilly" performer Hardrock Gunter), performed by Amos Milburn (1950); "Washington Heights, Pratt City Special" and "Bessemer Rag," all by Robert McCoy (1962). Erskine Hawkins' hit song "Tuxedo Junction" (composed by Buddy Feyne, Erskine Hawkins, William Johnson, and Julian Dash and set to the melody of "Alabama Jubilee") refers to the Birmingham district of that name. There is also a Birmingham district called "West End," but Louis Armstrong's composition "West End Blues" reportedly relates to a resort spot of that name overlooking Lake Pontchartrain, north of New Orleans, Louisiana, active during the first two decades of the twentieth century.

Bessemer (city, 20,638 black residents in 2000). Residence (pre-World War II) of Bessemer Harmony Four; Bessemer Sunset Four (also known as Bessemer Quartet); Bessemer Big Four (1941); and Bessemer Melody Boys. Birthplace of Alex Bradford and James Hill (1916). Location (2002) of McAdory Temple COGIC.

Birmingham (178,372 black residents in 2000). Birmingham and its neighboring cities formed a focus for blues activity and a more important focus for gospel activity (particularly for male quartets). Birmingham is colloquially known as "The Magic City," and its blues society is the Magic City Blues Society. Birmingham had 126,338 black residents (over 41% of the city's total population) in the 1970 Census; its greater metropolitan area had a population of 767,230. The city and its suburbs previously relied heavily upon the steel industry but has now diversified into chemicals and food processing. Birthplace of Erskine Hawkins (1914), Claude Jeter (1914), Sun Ra (1914); Willie Love (1925); Dorothy Love Coates (1928; nee McGriff); Lillian McGriff (1928); and James Taylor (1961). Location (2002) of East Birmingham COGIC (Pastor, Bishop Peter Wren); (2002) Emanuel Temple COGIC (Pastor, Bishop O. L. Meadows); (2002) and Grace Covenant COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Michael L. Frazier).

Prior to World War II, the Gennett label had a link with the E. E. Forbes Piano Company of Birmingham, and one Jimmy Allen was talent scout for the company's 1927 Birmingham session: Wiley Barner with Will Jennings; Jaybird Coleman; Daddy Stovepipe and Whistling Pete; Dunham's Jubilee Singers (also known as the Bessemer Blues Singers); Joe Evans and Arthur McClain; the Rev. J. F. Forest; William Harris with Joe Robinson; Ollis Martin; Mount Sinai Jubilee Quartet, alias the Bessemer Harmony Four; R. D. Norwood; and Bertha Ross backed by Vance Patterson. Brunswick/Vocalion recorded some performers at Birmingham in 1928: Bessemer Sunset Four (also known as Bessemer Quartet); Golden Leaf Quartet; and the Rev. I. B. Ware; as well as some "hillbilly" performers. The Library of Congress recorded Tom Bradford at Birmingham in 1934 and the Bessemer Big Four in 1941. W. R. Calaway held a session at Birmingham for ARC in 1937, using Theodore White as a talent scout: William Blevins Quartet; Bogan's Birmingham Busters; Charlie Campbell; Georgia Slim; Guitar Slim; Peanut the Kidnapper; Ravizee Singers; Mack Rhinehart and Brownie Stubblefield; George Torey; reputedly, Lucille Bogan; and Willie Hagood.

After the war, John Daniels' Quartet (possibly white) recorded for the Bama label. Tiger Records 100 featured the "C.I.O. Singers," alias Sterling Jubilees (1952). Lawrence Shaul recorded Reed 1049 in 1959. Jerry McCain may have recorded at Birmingham for Rex (1961). Piney Brown recorded for Tune, but possibly at Nashville, Tennessee. The Vulcan label featured Lizzie Coleman (ca. 1964, unreleased); Robert McCoy (1958 and 1962); Charlie Barker (1964, unreleased); and Dave Miles (ca. 1964, unreleased). Arhoolie featured James Phillips (recorded 1962). Soul-O featured Robert McCoy and Marcus Ingram (1963).

Blues performers active in the area in the 1920s and earlier also included Charles Anderson; Lucille Bogan; Dora Carr; Cow Cow Davenport; Cleo Gibson; Iva [Ivy] Smith; Pinetop Smith; Delaware "Ivory" Williams; Mozelle Alderson; May Armstrong; Mildred Austin; Bogus Ben Covington; Ben Curry; Julia Johnson; Slim Reedy; Sam Tarpley; and James Wiggins.

Active, or probably active, in the 1930s were "Babyface"; John Bell; Birmingham Jug Band (recorded in Atlanta in 1930); Bob Campbell; "Cherryville"; George Curry; Edgewater Crows; Frank Hines; Willie Priest Ivin; Marshall Owens; Walter Roland; Sonny Scott; "Tragg"; Theodore Roosevelt "Po' Joe" White; and "Jabo" Williams.

Working there in the 1940s were Banjo Bill; Martin Barnett; Eddie Clearwater and Tom Triplett; Clarence Curry; Lee Golden; and James Summerfield.

In the 1950s, active artists probably included Wild Child Butler with "Big Bee" and "Drumming Cleve" (1956 to 1964); Elmer Parker; and Del Thorne.

In the 1960s and 1970s, blues performers probably included Dot Adams; Frank Adams; Lee Aikerson (returned from Chicago); Alabama Red; Tom Anderson; King Jesse Ellston; Dave McConico; Roscoe Robinson; and Odis Spencer.

In the 1980s, Frederick Knight Productions production company actively promoted soul performers.

During the 1920s, gospel performers active in the Birmingham area included the Birmingham Jubilee Singers, alias Alabama Four and Sugar Cane Four; A. C. Forehand; Blind Mamie Forehand; Rolling Mill Four; Arthur Lee Turner; (possibly) the Rev. Jim Beal; and Georgia Lee Stafford.

In the 1930s, the area featured Will Bailey; the Bessemer Melody Boys; Joe Coleman; L. V. Cox; Arizona Dranes with Bishop Williams; Fairfield Traveling Stars; Famous Blue Jay Singers of Birmingham; and Claude Jeter.

Performers active in the 1940s included the Apollo Boys Choir of Birmingham; the Rev. Sandy Davis; Ensley Jubilee Singers; the Rev. Paul Exkano (originally from New Orleans); Four Great Wonders; Happy Hitters of Birmingham; Leo Manley's Heavenly Gospel Singers, alias Stars of Harmony; Kings of Harmony (of Birmingham, Alabama); Original Gospel Harmonettes; Walter Patton; Protective Harmoneers; Aldridge "Cap" Stanfield; and Jim Steele.

In the 1950s, area gospel performers included Bessemer Big Four (backing the Rev. Gatemouth Moore on Coral 65096); Evangelist Singers of Alabama; and Willie Love.

Active in the 1960s and 1970s were John Alexander (Sterling Jubilee Singers); Carl Coates; Dorothy Love Coates; Eunice Cook; Johnny Gaines; The Harmonizing Five; Henry Holston; Rozetta Johnson; Sam Johnson; Tom Lacy; Sam Lewis; Herbert Pickard; Dock Terry; and Joe Washington.

In the 1980s, gospel performers included The Four Eagle Gospel Singers; the Gospel Sunlites of Birmingham; the Harps of Memory; and the Sterling Jubilees.

In the 1990s, Birmingham was the location of the Rev. J. T. Hutton.

Brighton (city 3,244 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Silas Steele (1911).

Cottage Hill (now a section of Pleasant Grove). Residence of Walter Roland's ex-wife circa the 1940s.

Fairfield (city, 11,171 black residents in 2000). Residence of Wiley Barner (pre-World War II); Fairfield Traveling Stars.

North Johns (town, 84 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Isaac "Dickie" Freeman (1928).

Midfield (city, 3,347 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of Free Will COGIC (Pastor, Eugene Starks).

Pratt City. Birthplace of Charlie Bridges (1901); Jabo Williams.

Lamar County

Millport (town, 394 black residents in 2000). George "Bullet" Williams reportedly hailed from Millport.

Vernon (city, 271 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of New Zion COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Marry R. Johnson).

Lauderdale County

Florence (city, 6,963 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of W. C. Handy (1873); Homer Smith (1902); Arthur Alexander; and Jimmy Hughes. Location (2002) of Morrow Memorial COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Larry Anderson).

Lexington (town, 0 black residents in 2000). Location (2000) of Woodrich Publishing Company (in 1974, based in Rogersville), operated by Woody Richardson.

Rogersville (town, 68 black residents in 2000). Location (1974) of Woodrich Publishing Company, operated by Woody Richardson; in 2000, it was based in Lexington. Rogersville was presumably the location of the Sensational Harmoneers, featuring Jerry Townsend.

Lawrence County

Courtland (town, 311 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of Grace Tabernacle COGIC.

Town Creek (town, 416 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Andrew C. "Moohah" Williams.

Limestone County

Ardmore. Birthplace of Aaron Wilburn (1950).

Athens (city, 3,464 black residents in 2000). Although no details of identity are known, local black blues men influenced the Delmore Brothers (Alton and Rabon).

Macon County

Notasulga (town, 297 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of George "King" Scott (1929) (Five Blind Boys of Alabama).

Society Hill. Residence of Albert Macon (born 1920) and Robert Thomas (born 1929).

Tuskegee (city, 11,310 black residents in 2000--out of 11,846 total). Birthplace of Eddie McFarland; and Lionel Ritchie (1949). Residence of B. T. Foote (born 1908, deceased by 1991); McKinley James; Albert Macon (born 1920); and Robert Thomas (born 1929).

Madison County

Birthplace of Augusta James (1955).

Huntsville (city, 47,642 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Roosevelt Childress (1926); James Holland (1927); and Mervyn Warren (1965). Huntsville is the subject of a song by Evans and McClain in a 1931 recording titled "New Huntsville Jail." Little Richard attended theological college there from 1958. Location (2002) of Beirne Avenue COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Dave Draper Sr.); (2002) Bibleway COGIC (Pastor, Reginald Roberts); (2002) Fountain of Life COGIC (Pastor, James Strong); and (2002) Right Way COGIC (Pastor, Jesse Draper).

Madison (city, 3,798 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of Cathedral of Faith COGIC (Pastor, Hugh E. Mitchell).

New Haven. Location (2002) of Inspirational Zion COGIC (Pastor, Kenneth Washington Jr.).

Marion County

Hamilton (city, 515 black residents in 2000). Possible location of Harry Rutledge.

Morgan County

Decatur (city, 10,548 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Earl Gaines (1935).

Laceys Spring. Location (2002) of Crutcher Temple COGIC (Pastor, Strong).

Pickens County

Aliceville (city, 1,708 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Joe McCoy (Robert McCoy's father); and Robert McCoy. Residence of Benny Houston (1950s--to Chicago); and Milton Houston (1950s--to Chicago).

Carrollton (town, 440 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Donald Ray Hill (1954).

Dancy. Residence of Alabama Red (1970s); and Birmingham George Conner (1970s).

Shelby County

Montevallo (city, 1,249 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of James "Piano 'C' Red" Wheeler (1933). Location of Alabama College.

Talladega County

The county was the birthplace of Bishop Joe Perry Tillis and Bill Johnson.

Lincoln (city, 1,238 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of St. Mark COGIC (Pastor, T. Huffman).

Talladega (city, 6,402 black residents in 2000). Site of Talladega College, previously the Talladega Institute for the Deaf and Blind. The institute was the impetus for the creation in 1939 of the Five Blind Boys of Alabama, initially led by Velma Traylor. The Five Blind Boys of Alabama included, in its early days, the Rev. Paul Exkano, Johnny Fields, Clarence Fountain, George Scott, and Olice Thomas.

Tuscaloosa County

Fosters. Residence of Little Whitt (2000).

Holt Census Designated Place (1,930 black residents in 2000). Residence of Johnny Shines (from late 1960s, with his wife Hattie). "Tut" also was active there.

Ralph. Birthplace of Walter Roland (1902); and Little Whitt.

Tuscaloosa (city, 33,287 black residents in 2000). Residence of Blind Buddy Bailey; Franklin Bell (drums--later to Los Angeles); Willie King; Mike McCracken (2000); Big Bo McGee (2000); Candy Martin Shines (1960s-at least 2000); Johnny Shines (with Candy Martin Shines, to his death in 1992); Vera Hall Ward; and "Little Whit" (Jolly Wells). Location of Stillman College.

Walker County

Jasper (city, 1,965 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of New Bethel COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Marry R. Johnson).

Georgia

Georgia was a strong blues area pre-World War II and has had an important place in gospel music. Its major urban center, Atlanta, just outside the Appalachian region, was the main pre-World War II recording center for the southeastern states, only being replaced by Nashville, Tennessee, from about 1947 onward.

King George II chartered Georgia to James Edward Oglethorpe as a colony for persecuted Protestants in 1732, with the aim of protecting the Carolinas against incursion by the Spaniards in Florida and the French in Louisiana. Initially, the colony prohibited slavery, but this was changed after it became a royal province in 1753. By 1860, the population was 1,057,286, of which 44 percent were black slaves. As late as 1900, when the population was 2,216,331, 46.7% were black, but the proportion of blacks at each U.S. Census has fallen steadily since.

Cotton was the major crop until the boll weevil devastation of about 1923, which brought about some diversification. The peak cotton crop was in 1911, when 2,768,000 bales were grown on 5 million acres.

Almost 60 percent of the state lies within the Atlantic coastal plain, below a fall line stretching from Augusta through Milledgeville and Macon to Columbus. Up country from the fall line lies the Piedmont plateau, which includes Atlanta. The more mountainous regions above the Piedmont include the Blue Ridge, the Cumberland Plateau, and the Great Valley, extending north from Cedartown.

In 2003, the Appalachian Regional Commission had jurisdiction over Banks, Barrow, Bartow, Carroll, Catoosa, Chattooga, Cherokee, Dade, Dawson, Douglas, Elbert, Fannin, Floyd, Forsyth, Franklin, Gilmer, Gordon, Gwinnett, Habersham, Hall, Haralson, Hart, Heard, Jackson, Lumpkin, Madison, Murray, Paulding, Pickens, Polk, Rabun, Stephens, Towns, Union, Walker, White, and Whitfield counties.

As of 1850, based on the ratio of slaves to free colored and the numbers of each (the Mance Index, see page 73), racial conditions in the Appalachian region were apparently harshest, in descending order, in Elbert, Floyd, Jackson, Heard, Gwinnett, Murray, Madison, Franklin, Chattooga, Paulding, Walker, Hall, Habersham, Carroll, and Cherokee counties. It is in those counties where the development of distinctively black Appalachian blues or gospel music might have been expected to occur. However, those are also the Appalachian counties most likely to lose black population by emigration.

In 1920, the Appalachian counties with the largest nonwhite tenant farmer numbers were Elbert (1,479) and Carroll (1,043). The top cotton-producing Appalachian counties, all with over 25,000 bales were, in descending order, Jackson, Carroll, Gwinnett, Madison, Elbert, Hart, Franklin, and Bartow. The Appalachian counties were modest tobacco producers, the main ones being Union (22,959 pounds), Fannin, Gilmer, and White. Prominent Appalachian sweet potato producers included Carroll (119,425 bushels), Gwinnett, Jackson, Madison, Elbert, Franklin, Hart, Cherokee, Walker, Catoosa, and Heard.

Among those performers known or thought to have hailed from Georgia are Sister Cally Fancy and Lucius Hardy.

Barrow County

Probable county of residence of Henry Dink at his death (1987, age 58).

Carroll County

Carrollton (6,184 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Margie Alexander (1948). Possible location of Carrollton label (1959) (featuring Billy Wright and the Mighty Harmony Kings).

Villa Rica (city, 740 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Thomas A. Dorsey.

Whitesburg (county line, 100 blacks in 2000). Possible location of Velma "Chubby" Newsome (1930).

Cherokee County

Macedonia. Likely location of Jesse Fuller (1908-1912).

Elbert County

Elberton (2,039 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Charles "Baby" Tate (1916). Residence of Willie Hill.

Floyd County

Rome (9,677 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Albert Washington. Place of death of Gertrude "Ma" Rainey (1939).

Franklin County

Martin. See Stephens County.

Royston. See Hart County.

Gordon County

Calhoun. Residence (1930) of Andrew and Jim Baxter.

Curryville. Birthplace of concert singer Roland Hayes.

Gwinnett County

Probable county of death of Henry Dink (1987, age 58).

Grayson. Residence of Bobby Byrd and wife Vicky Anderson (2004).

Lawrenceville (city, 3,048 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of Simmons Chapel AME Zion Church.

Loganville (city, 246 black residents in 2000, partly in Walton County). Location (2003) of Mt. Zion AME Zion Church.

Habersham County

Cornelia (city, 350 black residents in 2000). Residence of Affrilachian performance poet doris davenport; John Gibson; and Will Gibson.

Hall County

Gainesville (city, 4,023 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of doris davenport. Residence of Sister O. M. Terrell.

Hart County

Reported location of Arthur Gunter (Excello label recording artist).

Heard County

Birthplace of Roy Lee Johnson (1938).

Lumpkin County

Dahlonega (city). Location (2003) of Hickory Grove CME Church.

Paulding County

Hiram (city, 201 black residents in 2000). Residence of white hillbilly performer John Dilleshaw and of his black mentor, Bill Turner (ca. 1917).

Weddington Militia District (near Brownsville). Residence of Will "Bill" Turner (1920, age 33).

Polk County

Cedartown. Residence (1900) of Ida Cox (nee Prather).

Rabun County

Residence of Barbara Fruster (2003).

Stephens County

Location of Crossroads Baptist Church.

Avalon (town, 22 black residents in 2000). Residence of Boyd Kay (possibly died 1988, age 74).

Gumlog. Residence of Taft Dortch (1972).

Martin (town, 82 black residents in 2000). Residence of Paul Harrison; Mac Kay; Ed Odister; and Barbara Fruster.

Scott Road. Residence of Boyd Singleton; and his white student Ramblin' Tommy Scott.

Toccoa (city, 2,001 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Ida Cox (nee Prather; 1888); Bobby Byrd; Sarah Byrd Giglio; Sylvester "King" Keels; Nafloyd Scott; Baroy "Baby Roy" Scott; James Crawford; and Teddy Brown (1954-1973). Residence of James Brown (1952-1955); Famous Flames; Johnny Terry; Utta Kay (died in 1982); Robert Scott; J. C. Staggers (died in 1984, age 85); Teddy Brown and the Torches; Detroit Steeples' Community Choir; Mellowtones (1940s and 1950s); Friendly Five; and Bub Williams' New Mixed Choir. Location of "Black Bottom" club (1920s and 1930s); Bill's Rendevous Club (1950s); and Barry's Recreation Center (1950s). Location of Friendship Baptist Church (500 Sage St.); Mount Sinai Fire Baptized Holiness Church (607 S. Broad St.); Mount Zion Baptist Church (Whitman Street); and Trinity CME Church (329 Franklin St.).

Walker County

Rossville (city, 137 black residents in 2000). Residence of Palmer McAbee (1930), white harmonica player who was thought for a time to have been black.

Kentucky

Kentucky is not a state well known for blues or gospel music, although it was a slave state. It was originally part of the territory claimed by Virginia, and its initial settlement was influenced by conditions in Virginia. Kentucky is mentioned in the title of Smokey Smothers' song "Way Up in the Mountains of Kentucky."

Counties falling within the purview of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003 were Adair, Bath, Bell, Boyd, Breathitt, Carter, Casey, Clark, Clay, Clinton, Cumberland, Edmonson, Elliott, Estill, Fleming, Floyd, Garrard, Green, Greenup, Harlan, Hart, Jackson, Johnson, Knott, Knox, Laurel, Lawrence, Lee, Leslie, Letcher, Lewis, Lincoln, McCreary, Madison, Magoffin, Martin, Menifee, Monroe, Montgomery, Morgan, Owsley, Perry, Pike, Powell, Pulaski, Rockcastle, Rowan, Russell, Wayne, Whitley, and Wolfe.

Historically, there were greater numbers of blacks in some parts of the Appalachian region than at present. Overall for the entire state, there were twenty-one slaves for each free colored person in 1850. The slave populations in 1850 of counties falling in the Appalachian Regional Commission's area were Adair (1,707), Bath (2,535), Bell (did not yet exist), Boyd (did not yet exist), Breathitt (170), Carter (257), Casey (634), Clark (4,840), Clay (515), Clinton (262), Cumberland (1,485), Edmonson (325), Elliott (did not yet exist), Estill (411), Fleming (2,139), Floyd (149), Garrard (3,176), Greene (now known as Green, 2,608), Greenup (606), Harlan (123), Hart (1,301), Jackson (did not yet exist), Johnson (30), Knott (did not yet exist), Knox (612), Laurel (192), Lawrence (137), Lee (did not yet exist), Leslie (did not yet exist), Letcher (62), Lewis (322), Lincoln (3,355), McCreary (did not yet exist), Madison (5,393), Magoffin (did not yet exist), Martin (did not yet exist), Menifee (did not yet exist), Monroe (831), Montgomery (3,073), Morgan (187), Owsley (136), Perry (117), Pike (98), Powell (did not yet exist), Pulaski (1,307), Rockcastle (also spelled Rock Castle, 375), Rowan (did not yet exist), Russell (435), Wayne (830), Whitley (201), and Wolfe (did not yet exist).

Greenup County

212 black residents in 2000.

Greenup. Place of residence and death (1973, age 75) of William "Bill" Williams, from Richmond, Virginia.

Harlan County

869 black residents in 2000.

Lynch Mines. Possible location of Sam Collins (1930).

Letcher County

129 black residents in 2000.

Whitesburg. Location of June Appal label (Box 743, Whitesburg, Kentucky 41858).

Perry County

482 black residents in 2000.

Hazard (city, 316 black residents in 2000). Residence of Bayless Rose (1930).

Pike County

Birthplace of Todd Wright.

Maryland

Maryland has probably been more important for its gospel music performers than for blues. Maryland became, in 1663, the second colony, after Virginia, to legislate the legalization of slavery.

Norman Brown, guitarist of Mills Brothers fame, may have hailed from Maryland.

Gospel singer Alma Parks Brown was born in Maryland in 1907; and gospel singer Clifton Stanton Jr. was born in Maryland in 1960.

Allegany, Garrett, and Washington counties fall within the area for which the Appalachian Regional Commission is responsible.

Allegany County

No black tenant farmers in 1920 and a total 1920 black population of 1,825.

Cumberland. Location (2002) of Ebenezer Full Gospel Baptist Church; and Metropolitan AME Church.

Washington County

Six black tenant farmers in 1920 and a total 1920 black population of 2,242.

Hagerstown. Possibly mentioned in song by Ed Bell (but compare Hagerstown, Indiana).

Mississippi

Mississippi has been a most important state for the development of blues, and it also has a rich gospel heritage.

Mississippi achieved statehood in 1817, but tentative population figures are available back to 1800. Its black population numbered around half the state's total population for many decades, although the percentage of blacks has generally fallen since 1900.

Before emancipation, many black slaves were brought to the state. Its black population rose from 3,671 in 1800 to 17,328 in 1810, 33,272 in 1820, 66,178 in 1830, 196,577 in 1840, 310,808 in 1850, and 437,404 in 1860. As of 1850, there were only 23,116 slave-holding families in the state, but the state's average number of slaves (13.4) per slave-holding family was the second highest in the United States, after South Carolina (at fifteen slaves per slave-holding family).

Mississippi's total population was 606,526 in 1850, so that blacks outnumbered whites. By 1860, blacks formed 55.3 percent of the state's population. Of the 1850 black population, only 1,930 (1.3%) were free, among the lowest percentages in the United States at that time, and the percentage who were slaves in the state changed little prior to emancipation (1863-1865).

The Civil War retarded the state's growth, but in the decade to 1880, the state again attracted strong growth, including net black immigration of 17,600 estimated by the Census Office, the last decade for which the Census Office has estimated net black migration into the state. By 1880, there were 650,291 black residents in the state (57.5% of the state total), and in 1900, there were 907,630, representing a peak share of 58.5% of its population.

Between 1880 and 1960, depending on the method of calculation, the U.S. Census Bureau and others have estimated that there was net outmigration of between 710,600 and 960,100 blacks from the state. Between 1960 and 1990, net black emigration from the state was in the order of 406,000, including an estimated 279,000 in the decade to 1970.

In 1990, the black population was 915,057, not much different from the totals in 1900 or in 1960. The state's black population had reached a million by 1910, peaked at 1,009,718 in 1930, and hit a trough of 815,770 in 1970. The 1990 black population represented around 35.6 percent of the state's population.

In 1920, of the 935,048 blacks living in Mississippi, 861,340 (92%) were born there. From other states, blacks from Alabama were the largest group (almost 3%), followed by Louisiana (almost 2%), and then (in descending order) Tennessee, Georgia, Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and South Carolina (all less than 1% each, although over a thousand in number).

The traditional (pre-1950) definition of "urban" population in the United States was a population residing within incorporated places having 2,500 or more inhabitants. As of the 1920 census, only 240,121 people lived in urban areas in the state (just over 13% of the total), but even that figure was almost twice the number of urban dwellers in 1900, and seven times that of 1880. Although the definition of "urban" was extended by 1950 to include unincorporated places of 2,500 or more, even in 1970, the state's urban population was only 987,000, compared with a rural population of 1,230,000. The rural population had peaked in 1940 at 1,751,000. The black population was initially even more rural-oriented than the white population, but that altered with the influx of blacks to the cities and towns from the plantations.

Counties falling within the ambit of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003 included Alcorn, Benton, Calhoun, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Clay, Itawamba, Kemper, Lee, Lowndes, Marshall, Monroe, Montgomery, Noxubee, Oktibbeha, Panola, Pontotoc, Prentiss, Tippah, Tishomingo, Union, Webster, Winston, and Yalobusha.

The 1850 slave population of the Appalachian counties was Chickasaw (6,480 slaves), Choctaw (2,978), Itawamba (2,127), Kemper (5,378), Lowndes (12,993), Marshall (15,417), Monroe (11,717), Noxubee (11,323), Oktibbeha (4,844), Panola (6,420), Pontotoc (4,968), Tippah (4,928), Tishomingo (1,961), Winston (2,768), and Yalobusha (8,597). As of 1850, Alcorn, Benton, Calhoun, Clay, Lee, Montgomery, Prentiss, Union, and Webster counties did not yet exist.

The harshest racial conditions as of 1850 in the Appalachian counties (using the Mance Index) appear to have been (in descending order of harshness) in Marshall, Lowndes, Monroe, Noxubee, Yalobusha, Chickasaw, Panola, Kemper, Pontotoc, Tippah, Oktibbeha, Choctaw, Itawamba, and Tishomingo.

Among those performers known or thought to come from the state are Madlyn Davis; Tom Dumas; Washington Herron; Earnest Johnson; Tommy Lee Luster; Alenda Moore; and Wiley Pittman.

Alcorn County

The county had 414 black farmers as of 1920, including 272 black tenant farmers.

Corinth (city, 3,035 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Robert Burse Jr. (1892-1974); possibly Charley Burse (1901-1965); Fannie Burse; and Robert Carter. Residence of The Southland Quartet (including Carl Barnes and the late Brown Carter) (1940s-1996). Place of death of Brown Carter (1996).

Benton County

The county had 900 black farmers as of 1920, including 772 black tenant farmers.

Ashland (62 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the late Nathan Beauregard (ca. 1876); and Joe L. Beard (1938). Residence of Nathan Beauregard. Location (2003) of Saint Luke COGIC (Pastor, Nathaniel L. Holleman Jr.).

Hudsonville. Birthplace of Junior Kimbrough (1930).

Lamar. Birthplace of Jimmie Thompson (1928) (to Chicago); and Mac Thompson (1934) (to Chicago). Residence of Clyde Jamison (Holly Springs?); Eugene Jamison (Holly Springs?); Floyd Murphy (Holly Springs?); Matt Murphy (Holly Springs?) (born Sunflower, 1929); Sam Thompson (1930s) (to Holly Springs); (Compare Syl Johnson [Thompson], who was born in Centreville, Tennessee, in 1936).

Michigan City. Birthplace of the late Will Batts (1904). Compare "Michigan City Blues" (Vocalion unreleased), recorded by Joseph "Piano Slim" Stovall in 1927, which, however, may refer to Michigan City, Indiana.

Calhoun County

The county had 563 black farmers as of 1920, including 461 black tenant farmers.

Joe Dan Boyd was the contact for Sacred Harp Singers from Calhoun County.

Bruce (town, 930 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of New Hope COGIC (Pastor, Sinatra Williams).

Calhoun City (town, 599 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of Porter Chapel AME Church.

Chickasaw County

The county had 1,616 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,306 black tenant farmers.

Houston (city, 1,492 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Willie Buck; and the late Bukka White (1904). Location (2003) of Christian Fellowship (Full Gospel Baptist) Church (Senior Pastor, Jimmy Jones).

Choctaw County

The county had 515 black farmers as of 1920, including 301 black tenant farmers.

Residence of Doc Hemphill (fiddle; great-grandfather of Jessie Mae Hemphill).

Ackerman (town, 591 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Therley "Speedy" Ashford (1910); Velmer Ashford. Location (2003) of Gospel Temple COGIC.

Beat 1. Residence of Velmer Ashford (1930, age 26).

Eupora. See Webster County.

Weir (town, 297 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the late Levester (Big Lucky) Carter (1920).

Clay County

The county had 1,924 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,555 black tenant farmers.

Pheba. Location (2003) of Hogan Chapel AME Church.

West Point (city, 6,823 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the late Chester Arthur Burnett (Howlin' Wolf) (1911); Johnny Moore (1940); and Zora Young (ca. 1948). Residence of Booker T. "Bukka" White. Location (2003) of London Chapel AME Church; St. John AME Church; Friendship (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Willie B. Lairy); and Union Star (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Robert Branson).

Whites (also known as White Station). Residence of Howlin' Wolf (1920).

Itawamba County

The county had 178 black farmers as of 1920, including 122 black tenant farmers.

Beat 2. Residence of Archie Brownlee (1930).

Kemper County

The county had 1,877 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,334 black tenant farmers.

De Kalb (town, 489 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of Deliverance Temple COGIC (Pastor, Gregory Brown).

Lee County

The county had 1,512 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,330 black tenant farmers.

Baldwyn (city). See Prentiss County.

Nettleton (town). See Monroe County.

Tupelo (city, 9,676 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Aaron Gant (Aaron Sparks) (ca. 1908) and his brother Marion Gant (Marion Sparks); Ernestine Sparks; Jimmie Lee Sparks Miller (female); and Richard "Harmonica Slim" Riggins (to San Francisco). Residence of Arthur Johnson (1910s); and the Supreme Angels (probably including Howard Hunt) (ca. 1968). Presumed location of Tupelo Slim, probably more recently in Michigan. Location (2003) of Emmanuel COGIC; and Emmanuel COGIC (Pastor, Jeremiah Penro). Record labels include The Master's Hands Records, associated with Robert S. Riley Sr. (1960s). The city was celebrated in song by Chuck Berry, Albert King, and John Lee Hooker. It is best known as Elvis Presley's birthplace.

Lowndes County

The county had 2,141 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,766 black tenant farmers.

Artesia (town, 395 black residents in 2000). Residence of Willie Lee Harris (harmonica).

Beat 5. Residence of Bert Logan (1930, age 58).

Columbus (city, 14,117 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Bogus Ben Covington; Huey Davis (of the Contours) (1938). Residence of Otto Virgial; and Tom Turner (122 11th Avenue South--rear) (1967). Location (2003) of Charity Missionary Full Gospel Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Charles Fisher); Deliverance Evangelistic Outreach (Senior Pastor, George Ampiah); Full Gospel Ministry (Senior Pastor, Maxine Hall); New Beginnings Full Gospel Ministry (District Overseer, Glen Jefferson); and Victory Full Gospel Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Burt Richardson).

Crawford (town, 610 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tom Turner (1901); Joe Lee Williams (Big Joe Williams) (1906); and John Wesley Macon (Mr. Shortstuff) (1933). Residence of Bert and Russ Logan (previously Beat 5, Oktibbeha County); and Ben Walker (guitar). Location (2003) of Charity Mission (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (State Bishop, Bobby L. McCarter).

South Columbus. Location (2003) of Turner Chapel AME Church.

Marshall County

The county had 3,558 black farmers as of 1920, including 3,070 black tenant farmers.

Barton. Residence of L. C. McKinley (ca. 1938).

Byhalia (town, 252 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of P. T. Hayes; Will Roy "Slim" Sanders (1924) (to Orange Mound, Memphis); Bob Myers (Robert L. Myers) (1925); David Myers (1927); the late Louis Myers (1929); and Jan Bradley (1944). Residence of Johnny Booster (to Chicago by 1972); Jan Bradley (birthplace, 1944--to Chicago by 1959); Ed Hill; Tim Hill; Joseph Jenny (1930s); Amos Myers (to Chicago--deceased); Bob Myers (birthplace, 1925--to Chicago); Curtis Myers (birthplace--to Chicago); David Myers (birthplace, 1927--to Chicago); Louis Myers (birthplace, 1929--to Chicago); Mary Myers (to Chicago); Mary Louise Myers (birthplace--to Chicago); Will Roy "Slim" Sanders (birthplace, 1924--to Memphis by 1950s); Alison Shipp (1939); Christeen Shipp (1939); Shipp family (1939); "Souphouse" (1930s--recalled by Will Roy Sanders); Ernest "Boose" Taylor; Sam Taylor; Richard Taylor; and Raymond Payne. Location (2003) of Mt. Pisgah CME Church.

Cayce. Birthplace of Rufus Thomas (1917).

Chulahoma. Residence of Wilbert Lee Reliford.

Holly Springs (city, 6,062 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Arthur Brooks (ca. 1890) (to Winchester, Kentucky, by 1975). Birthplace of Elec Greer (1912) (to Memphis, then Missouri); Mose Vinson (1917); Roosevelt Harris (1908); John Lewis Sea (1910); the Rev. George Shields (1915); Lee Roi Nabors (1916); Frank Howard (1925); Velba "Little" Applewhite (1933); Sylvester Thompson (Syl Johnson) (1936); Dan Greer (1942) (to Memphis); David Malone (D. K. Jr.); and Jimmy Johnson. Residence of Hermon Applewhite (to Chicago); Melvin Applewhite (to Chicago); Nathan Applewhite (to Chicago); Velba "Little" Applewhite (to Memphis); Robert Belfour (1989); R. L. Burnside; Jimmy De Berry (1912-1920). Residence of Golden Stars (radio WKRA, 1972); Roosevelt Harris (radio WKRA, 1972); Frank Howard (to Memphis); George Howard (to Memphis); Martha Howard (to Memphis); Leandrew "Cotton" Howell (died 1991, in Memphis); Invincible Quartette of Rust College (1928); Monroe "Guy" Jackson; Clyde Jamison; Eugene Jamison; James Jefferson (to St. Louis); Ellen Jeffries; Jimmie Johnson (see Thompson); Mac Johnson (see Thompson); Syl Johnson (see Thompson); David Jr. Kimble/Kimbrough; Floyd Murphy; Matt Murphy (born Sunflower, 1929); Lee Roi Nabors (to Chicago); Lewis Nunnaley; "Roosevelt" (deceased by 1972); Rust College Quartet (1939); John Lewis Sea (to Memphis); the Rev. George Shields (to Memphis); Willie "Coot" Shields (died 1974); Edward "Preacher" Thomas (a.k.a. James Jefferson?); Jimmie Thompson ("Johnson") (born Lamar, Benton County, 1928--to Chicago); Mac Thompson ("Johnson") (born Lamar, Benton County, 1934--to Chicago); Sam Thompson (from Lamar, Benton County); Syl Thompson ("Johnson"--to Chicago); Ernest "Boose" Taylor (to Collierville, Tennessee); Sam Taylor (to Memphis); Mose Vinson (to Memphis); Bob Walls (1930s--from New Orleans); Richard Wiggins; and Johnny Woods. Place of death of David "Junior" Kimbrough (1998). Location of radio WKRA (1960s and 1970s). Location (2003) of Christ Temple COGIC (Pastor, Albert Pass); and Rust College (established 1866), whose Professor Sylvester Oliver was producing the Rustron label in the 1980s and 1990s.

Hudsonville. See Benton County (birthplace of David "Junior" Kimbrough).

Mt. Pleasant. Residence of Junior Kimbrough (1972--also at Holly Springs).

Red Banks. Birthplace of Gus Cannon (1884) (to Hernando, then Memphis; died 1979); Leandrew "Cotton" Howell (died 1991, in Memphis); and George Lee Whitelaw (harmonica).

Slayden. Residence of Junior Kimbrough (1946); his student, white rockabilly artist Charlie Feathers (1946-1998); "Obie" (1940s); and "Tim."

Monroe County

The county had 2,539 black farmers as of 1920, including 2,110 black tenant farmers.

Aberdeen (city, 3,862 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Howlin' Wolf's grandfather and of his father, Dock Burnett (1896). Residence of Booker T. Washington "Bukka" White (born Houston, Mississippi); J. D. Burner (1910s); C. D. Dobbs (1910s); Howlin' Wolf (1910s); George Robinson; and Jesse Robinson (1910s). Location (2003) of Payne Chapel AME Church; and First Assembly of God.

Amory (city, 2,030 black residents in 2000). Reported birthplace of Lucille Anderson (later Lucille Bogan, known as Bessie Jackson--possibly born in Alabama) (1897). Residence of Amory Male Quartet (1928); Frank Swan; possibly Tom Dickson (1928). Location (2003) of Rose of Sharon COGIC (Pastor, J. L. Hutton).

Beat 4. Residence of guitarist Octave Moore (1930).

Muldon. Probable location of Gertrude Burnett (1920), evangelist and mother of Howlin' Wolf.

Prairie. Residence of Booker T. Washington "Bukka" White circa 1930.

Riggins. Compare Richard Riggins.

Montgomery County

The county had 827 black farmers as of 1920, including 612 black tenant farmers.

Duck Hill (town, 472 black residents in 2000). Residence of Willie B. James (previously). Birthplace of Wheeler Ford (1892) (moved to Tunica County). Location (2003) of Binford Chapel United Methodist Church (411 Martin Luther King Jr.); and Mt. Pleasant Missionary Baptist Church (Highway 404 East).

Kilmichael (town, 443 black residents in 2000). Residence of B. B. King (previously). Location (2003) of St. Paul Church of God in Christ (Old Winona Road); and Mount Olive Missionary Baptist Church (1406 B. B. King Drive).

Winona (city, 2,781 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Lafayette Leake; Roebuck "Pops" Staples; and L. C. McKinley (1924) (later to Barton, Marshall County). Residence of The Forrest Family (1990s) (gospel).

Noxubee County

The county had 3,560 black farmers as of 1920, including 3,139 black tenant farmers.

Gholson. Possibly associated with Clara Gholson Brock.

Macon (city, 1,657 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Carey Bell (1936) (Harrington); Jesse Fortune; Eddie Harrington (Eddy Clearwater), and the Rev. Houston H. Harrington (1924). Residence of Elijah Brown (previously, born 1896); Jess Ingram (previously); Charlie West (born 1914); and Houston Harrington (born 1924). Location (2003) of Harrison Grove (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, James D. Lockett).

Oktibbeha County

The county had 1,811 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,357 black tenant farmers.

Starkville (city, 6,565 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tony Hollins (ca. 1900). Residence of J. H. Miller; J. L. Miller; and Piano Red. Location (2003) of Porter's House Ministry (Senior Pastor, Eloise Thompson); and Peter's Rock Temple COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Joseph Hawkins).

Sturgis (town, 12 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Louis Thomas Watts (Kid Thomas) (1934).

Panola County

The county had 3,369 black farmers as of 1920, including 2,966 black tenant farmers.

Big Amos (Patton) was born in the county in 1921 (near Sardis).

Batesville (city, 2,979 black residents in 2000). Residence of Lawrence Hardy. Location (2003) of Brassell Chapel AME Zion Church.

Como (town, 941 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Jessie Mae Hemphill; Sid Hemphill; Rosa Lee Hill. Residence of Napoloan [sic] Strickland (to Senatobia, but by 1991 at Gravel Springs); Bernice Turner; Othar Turner (by 1991 in Gravel Springs). Burial place (1972) of Fred McDowell. Residence (1970s) of B. O. McKinney; Annie Mae Collins; and James Collins.

Crenshaw (town, 655 black residents in 2000--partly in Quitman County). Residence of Walter Armstrong (piano); Charlie Green (guitar); and Watt (guitar--L. T. Watts?).

Gravel Springs. Residence of Napoloan [sic] Strickland (earlier at Senatobia, but by 1991 in Gravel Springs); Bernice Turner; and Othar Turner (by 1991).

Pleasant Grove. Birthplace of Lester "Big Daddy" Kinsey.

Sarah. Place of death of Felix Duke (presumably the same as Felix Dukes) (1998).

Sardis (town, 1,150 black residents in 2000). Residence of Miller McFarland (harmonica); and Big Amos (Patton).

Pontotoc County

The county had 850 black farmers as of 1920, including 807 black tenant farmers.

Algoma (town, 110 black residents in 2000). Birthplace (1923) of Leroy Foster (Baby Face Leroy).

Pontotoc (city, 1,003 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of Good Shepherd COGIC (Pastor, Robert D. Fleming Sr.).

Toccopola (town, 1 black resident in 2000). Birthplace of white blues-man Frank Floyd (Harmonica Frank, or Shankie) (1908).

Prentiss County

The county had 379 black farmers as of 1920, including 332 black tenant farmers.

Booneville (city, 1,595 black residents in 2000). Reported birthplace of Ruby McCoy (1917); Willie George McCoy (1921); and Ethel McCoy Wooten (1923) (all at East St. Louis by 1930).

Booneville. Residence of Anilla/Manila McCoy and Ruby McCoy (1920).

Tippah County

The county had 380 black farmers as of 1920, including 295 black tenant farmers.

Tiplersville. Location (2003) of Greater Mount Olive COGIC (Pastor, Rayfield Cameron).

Walnut (town, 109 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Travis Haddix.

Tishomingo County

The county had 119 black farmers as of 1920, including 50 black tenant farmers.

Tishomingo. Compare Peg Leg Howell's song "Tishamingo [sic] Blues."

Union County

The county had 645 black farmers as of 1920, including 539 black tenant farmers.

New Albany (city, 2,509 black residents in 2000). Residence of Tarry Williams (1950s); and Reverend Leon Pinson (1990s). Location (2003) of Golden Gate COGIC (Pastor, Robert L. Hamilton Sr.).

Webster County

The county had 398 black farmers as of 1920, including 303 black tenant farmers.

Cumberland. Possible birthplace of John Hollins (1891?).

Eupora (city, 884 black residents in 2000). Residence of Therley Ashford (born 1910); and Velma Ashford.

Maben (town). See Oktibbeha County.

Winston County

The county had 970 black farmers as of 1920, including 617 black tenant farmers.

Louisville (city, 3,675 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tommy "T. C." Carter.

Yalobusha County

The county had 1,317 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,069 tenant farmers. Residence of Charlie Patton and his then wife, Lizzie Taylor (ca. 1908).

Oakland (town, 445 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of Robinson Chapel AME Church; and The Word of Life Community (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Samuel Jones).

Torrance. Birthplace of Morris Holt ("Magic Slim") (1937).

Water Valley (town, 1,498 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of New Jerusalem COGIC (Pastor, Loyd Walton Jr.).

New York

New York is a state with much blues and gospel recording activity but relatively fewer performers than, say, Illinois, Pennsylvania, or Texas. It is more renowned for jazz than for blues and gospel.

New York abolished slavery in 1827, although a few slaves were counted in the state as late as the 1840 Census. Nevertheless, the state has a long history of substantial black settlement. In 1850, the free colored population (being the whole black population, because the state had no slaves by 1850) was 49,069, of whom 37,575 (77%) had been born in the state, 10,366 (21%) in other states, and 705 (1%) in foreign countries; 423 (1%) gave no place of origin. In 1910, there were 116,516 blacks (87.5%) in the state's urban areas, and only 16,705 (12.5%) in its rural areas.

Of the 166,512 black residents of the state in 1920 who gave their state of origin, 62,369 (37%) had been born in New York, 31,425 (18%) in Virginia, 13,326 (8%) in North Carolina, 13,102 (8%) in South Carolina, and 8,850 (5%) in Georgia. Those from other states contributing more than 1 percent included 4,272 (2%) from Maryland, 3,657 (2%) from Florida, 3,537 (2%) from New Jersey, 3,511 (2%) from Pennsylvania, and 2,506 (1%) from the District of Columbia. Alabama, Tennessee, Massachusetts, Kentucky, and Connecticut all contributed less than I percent. Therefore, of the southern-born black residents, the greater numbers were from states (Virginia and the Carolinas) having strong associations with tobacco growing.

The following counties fell within the purview of the Appalachian Regional Commission: Allegany, Broome, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Chemung, Chenango, Cortland, Delaware, Otsego, Schoharie, Schuyler, Steuben, Tioga, and Tompkins. In 1850, Appalachian counties had the following black populations: Allegany (128), Broome (431), Cattaraugus (102), Chautauqua (140), Chemung (286), Chenango (264), Cortland (49), Delaware (201), Otsego (175), Schoharie (478), Schuyler (did not yet exist), Steuben (371), Tioga (197), and Tompkins (325). Only in Broome and Schoharie counties did blacks exceed 1 percent of the total population. By 2000, the black population of the Appalachian counties were: Allegany (361), Broome (6,575), Cattaraugus (890), Chautauqua (3,051), Chemung (5,303), Chenango (422), Cortland (416), Delaware (568), Otsego (1,079), Schoharie (403), Schuyler (279), Steuben (1,347), Tioga (282), and Tompkins (3,508).

The most significant centers of black population in Appalachian New York in 2000 were Elmira (city, 4,039 black residents), Binghamton (3,987), Ithaca (city, 1,965), Union (1,377), Jamestown (1,075), Southport (758), Dunkirk (city, 665), Portland (663), Vestal (580), Ithaca (town, 533), Olean (532), and Oneonta (city, 515). Less significant centers of black Appalachians included Endicott (489 black residents), Johnson City (480), Lansing (town, 430), Coming (308), Oneonta (town, 307), Pomfret (305), Cortland (292), Dickinson (224), Bath (217), Hornell (215), and Dryden (201).

Broome County

Binghamton. Location (2001) of Mt. Sinai COGIC (Pastor, Arthur W. Jones Jr.).

Cattaraugus County

Ellicottville. Site of the Winter Blues Festival (January). Location of Balloons nightclub (2003); Foster's nightclub; Gin Mill nightclub; and Lake Effect Saloon (Kissing Bridge ski area).

Irving. Site of Eagles Nest Blues Festival (August).

Olean. Base of the Mojo Hand Blues Band (white) (2003).

Chautauqua County

Fredonia (109 blacks in 2000). Location of Coyle's Pub (2003); and New York, New York nightclub.

Chemung County

Elmira. Location (2001) of All Saints Home COGIC (Pastor, Dr. Cephus McGhee Jr.); and Faith Temple Community COGIC (Pastor, Leo Hughey).

Schoharie County

Jefferson. Residence of The Hell Hounds (white).

Steuben County

Corning (city and town). Site of the Annual Bridge Street Blast (August).

Tompkins County

Ithaca. Reported home (1975), of pianist Ezekiel Sanders. Location (2001) of Our Lord's Temple COGIC (Pastor, Calvin F. Christian).

North Carolina

North Carolina is often associated primarily with Blind Boy Fuller, but despite his enormous popularity and influence, he was a relative latecomer.

In 1850, the state had a white population of 553,028. There were also 27,463 free colored residents and 288,548 slaves, making for a total of 869,039. The Appalachian counties with the largest numbers of slaves in 1850 were Rutherford (2,905), Davie (2,171), Burke (2,132), Surry (2,000), Stokes (1,793), Buncombe (1,717), Forsyth (1,353), McDowell (1,262), Caldwell (1,203), Wilkes (1,142), Henderson (924), Alexander (543), Haywood (418), Yancey (346), Cherokee (337), and Watauga (129).

The major Appalachian urban slave centers in 1850 included Morgantown (Burke County; 298 slaves), Rutherfordton (Rutherford County; 168), Asheville (Buncombe County; 82), and Rockford (Surry County; 77).

On average, in 1850, there were almost ten slaves in Appalachian counties for each free colored person, but the ratio was as high as twenty-six to one in Davie County and twenty-five to one in Henderson County. Conversely, it was as low as three to one in Cherokee County. Based on the Mance Index, racial conditions in 1850 in the Appalachian region were apparently harshest, in descending order, in Davie, Buncombe, Henderson, Rutherford, Burke, Haywood, Stokes, and Caldwell counties. It is in those counties where the development of distinctively black Appalachian blues or gospel music might have been expected to occur. However, those are also the Appalachian counties most likely to lose black population by outmigration.

The major cotton counties in 1850 included the Appalachian county of Surry (21,369 bales). Tobacco production in 1919 exceeded 5 million pounds in Stokes and Surry counties.

Of 763,316 black residents of the state who gave their place of origin in the 1920 Census, 714,449 (93.6%) had been born in the state. The other main states of origin were 33,806 (4.4%) from South Carolina, 7,769 (1%) from Virginia, and 2,471 (0.3%) from Georgia, with no other state exceeding 0.1 percent.

In the 1920 census, the state had 763,407 black residents, with Forsyth (26,121) the only Appalachian county of note. By 1990, there were 66,102 black residents in Forsyth County.

Counties falling within the operations of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003 were Alexander, Alleghany, Ashe, Avery, Buncombe, Burke, Caldwell, Cherokee, Clay, Davie, Forsyth, Graham, Haywood, Henderson, Jackson, McDowell, Macon, Madison, Mitchell, Polk Rutherford, Stokes, Surry, Swain, Transylvania, Watauga, Wilkes, Yadkin, and Yancey.

From somewhere in the state came, or reportedly (or possibly) came, Margaret W. Allison; The Angelic Gospel Singers; the Rev. F. C. Barnes (1980s); The Bell Tones; Ted Bogan (1929--to Chicago); Charles Boyer; Irving "Skinny" Brown (1986); the Rev. Janice Brown (1980s); The Carolina Blazers; The Carolina Carolers; The Carolina Cotton Pickers; Carolina Slim (also as North Carolina Slim); Carolina Washboard Trio (a Walter Taylor group); Alonzo Eubanks; Case Earl Gilmore (to Virginia); Ella Mae Norris; Steele Smith; Tampa Kid; and "Tiny" (alto sax--to Arkansas).

Alleghany County

Sparta (town). Residence of gospel singers Juanita Bryan and Carol Choate (2000); and pianist Diane Bryan (2000).

Buncombe County

Birthplace of Roberta Flack (1937).

Asheville (city, 12,219 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Gus Gillum. Place of death of Leslie Riddle (alias Esley Riddle) (1979). Residence of Paul G. Babelay (2003). Location (2001) of Sycamore Temple COGIC (Pastor, Samuel Payne).

Black Mountain (town, 471 blacks in 2000). Residence of Dave Foraker (white blues fiddler) (2003).

Weaverville. Residence of Charles Malette Beattie (2003).

Burke County

Morganton (city, 2,208 black residents in 2000). Residence of Etta Reid Baker (1940s-1997); Lee Baker (1956; died 1967); Cora Phillips (1992); and Johnny Bristol.

Caldwell County

Collettsville. Birthplace of Etta Baker (1913). Residence of Boone Reid; Elizabeth "Babe" Reid; Etta Reid (by 1956, became Etta Baker--to Morganton in 1940s); Cora Phillips (nee Baker); and Theopolis "The" Phillips (also known as Theophalus Phillips).

Gamewell. Residence of Cora Phillips; Lacey Phillips; and Quincy Phillips.

Johns River (township). Residence of Boone Reid (1930); Cora Reid; and Etta Reid.

Lenoir (city, 2,470 black residents in 2000). Residence of Quincy A. Phillips (age 20) and Theophalus Phillips (age 30) (also known as Theopolis Phillips) (1930).

Forsyth County

Salem Chapel (south of, and adjacent to, Walnut Cove, Stokes County). Residence of Preston Sylvester Fulp (1930).

Winston-Salem (city, 68,924 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Curtis Hairston. Place of death of Willa Mae Buckner (2000); Prophet (1992); and Preston Fulp (1993). Residence of Big Del (1972); Horace "The Carolina Kid" Bridges; The Gospel Swans; Guitar Gabriel; Otis King (gospel); Clarence Matthews; Luther "Captain Luke" Mayer (from 1940); Jahue Rorie; James "Guitar Slim" Stephens (deceased); The Vibrations; Sherman Williamson and The Rhapsolians; Dennis Williams (moved by 2003 to Oklahoma); and Mighty Wonders of Winston-Salem. Location (2001) of Greater Faith Chapel COGIC (Pastor, Supt. John C. McClurkin Sr.).

Henderson County

Hendersonville (1,307 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of New Life COGIC (Pastor, Myron Henderson Sr.).

Polk County

Residence of Philip Anderson (Library of Congress, 1935--compare Phil Anderson, white, age 26, Johnston County, 1930); Robert Dennis (recorded 1980; born ca. 1914 in Half Moon, Alachua County, Florida); Willie Gillard (recorded 1980; born 1910 in Charleston, South Carolina).

Tryon (town, 370 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Nina Simone.

Stokes County

Peters Creek. Residence of Posy Foddrell (1900).

Pinnacle. Location of Music Maker Relief Foundation, Inc. (1994-2000 at least) (Tim and Denise Duffy, and Mark Levinson).

Walnut Cove (town, 280 black residents in 2000). Residence of Arthur Anderson (1937); the Bailey Brothers; Wheeler Baker; and Preston Fulp.

Surry County

Mt. Airy. Birthplace of Billy Lamont.

Transylvania County

Brevard (city, 783 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Jackie "Moms" Mabley (born Loretta Mary Aiken) (1897). Location (2001) of Open Bible COGIC (Pastor, Larry Harris).

Watauga County

Beaver Dam. Residence (1900) and presumed birthplace (1892) of David A. "Dave" Thompson, an influence on Clarence Ashley and Frank Proffitt.

Boone (town, 461 black residents in 2000). Residence of Pilgrim Singers (1930s); and Prymrolle Quartet. Location of Boone Krimmer Brethern Mennonite Church (Church St.).

Yancey County

Burnsville. Birthplace of Leslie Riddle (alias Lesley Riddle) (1905). Residence (2000) of T-Bone (R&B group).

Ohio

Ohio has mainly been the scene of urban blues and gospel activity; it has had a strong ragtime and jazz scene and relatively little blues and gospel activity.

Cincinnati was the early nucleus of black life, even when most of the population was rural. Hamilton County (around Cincinnati) had 3,600 free colored residents in 1850, followed by Ross County (Chillicothe) with 1,906, Franklin County (Columbus) with 1,607, and Gallia County (Gallipolis) with 1,198. In 1850, there were 25,279 free colored residents in the state, or just over I percent of the total population of 1,980,329. Only in Gallia, Pike, and Ross counties did blacks comprise more than 5 percent of the population. The counties of Belmont, Brown, Champaign, Clinton, Fayette, Franklin, Greene, Hamilton, Highland, Jackson, Jefferson, Lawrence, Logan, Mercer, Miami, Shelby, and Warren all were 2 percent or more black. These are mainly central or southern counties.

Of the state's 185,236 black residents as of 1920, only 36 percent had been born in the state. Of the remainder, Kentucky (24,595 or 13%), Alabama (17,588 or 9%), Georgia (13,387 or 7%), Virginia (13,032, also 7%), Tennessee (12,088 or 6%), North Carolina (6,580 or 4%), South Carolina (5,051 or 2%), Pennsylvania (3,588 or over 1%), Mississippi (3,246 or over 1%), and West Virginia (3,159 or over 1%) were the main sources.

Counties falling with the purview of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2002 were Adams, Athens, Belmont, Brown, Carroll, Clermont, Columbiana, Coshocton, Gallia, Guernsey, Harrison, Highland, Hocking, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, Lawrence, Meigs, Monroe, Morgan, Muskingum, Noble, Perry, Pike, Ross, Scioto, Tuscarawas, Vinton, and Washington. As of 1850, the Appalachian counties had black (free colored) populations as follows: Adams (55), Athens (106), Belmont (778), Brown (863), Carroll (52), Clermont (412), Columbiana (182), Coshocton (44), Gallia (1,198), Guernsey (168), Harrison (287), Highland (896), Hocking (117), Holmes (5), Jackson (391), Jefferson (665), Lawrence (326), Meigs (52), Monroe (69), Morgan (90), Muskingum (631), Noble (did not yet exist), Perry (29), Pike (618), Ross (1,906), Scioto (211), Tuscarawas (89), Vinton (107), and Washington (390).

Ohio was the birthplace of Bob King (1906), Zenas "Daddy" Sears (1913), Gay Crosse (1916), and the Rev. Elmore Morris Jr. (1933).

Jefferson County

The county had a black population of 2,063 in 1920; 4,726 in 1995.

Steubenville. Location (2001) of Emmanuel COGIC (Pastor, Supt. James Harris).

Lawrence County

The county had a black population of 1,691 in 1920; 1,752 in 1995.

Ironton. Possible location of Max Bailey (1947).

Ross County

The county had a black population of 2,232 in 1920; 5,416 in 1995.

Chillicothe. Birthplace of Nancy Wilson (1937). Residence of Betty Harris.

Scioto County

The county had a black population of 1,348 in 1920; 2,025 in 1995.

Portsmouth. Birthplace of Stuff Smith (1909).

Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania has been an especially important gospel state and an interesting blues state. The state is celebrated in "Pennsylvania Woman Blues," performed by Six Cylinder Smith (thought to be Blind Joel Taggart). Bertha Idaho's "Down on Pennsylvania Avenue" refers to the street of that name in Baltimore, Maryland. Leecan and Cooksey recorded "Broad Street Blues," which refers to the renowned street in Philadelphia.

More than 81 percent of the state's area was within the ambit of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003, excluding only the southeastern corner of the state. The following counties fell within the purview of the commission: Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Bedford, Blair, Bradford, Butler, Cambria, Cameron, Carbon, Centre, Clarion, Clearfield, Clinton, Columbia, Crawford, Elk, Erie, Fayette, Forest, Fulton, Greene, Huntingdon, Indiana, Jefferson, Juniata, Lackawanna, Lawrence, Luzerne, Lycoming, McKean, Mercer, Mifflin, Monroe, Montour, Northumberland, Perry, Pike, Potter, Schuylkill, Snyder, Somerset, Sullivan, Susquehanna, Tioga, Union, Venango, Warren, Washington, Wayne, Westmoreland, and Wyoming.

The counties covered by the Appalachian Regional Commission had the following populations of black (free colored) persons as of 1850: Allegheny (3,431), Armstrong (129), Beaver (245), Bedford (415), Blair (260), Bradford (197), Butler (84), Cambria (128), Cameron (did not yet exist), Carbon (30), Centre (243), Clarion (117), Clearfield (104), Clinton (152), Columbia (103), Crawford (99), Elk (2), Erie (149), Fayette (1,669), Forest (did not yet exist), Fulton (93), Greene (476), Huntingdon (335), Indiana (254), Jefferson (94), Juniata (131), Lackawanna (did not yet exist), Lawrence (132), Luzerne (373), Lycoming (367), McKean (36), Mercer (291), Mifflin (410), Monroe (100), Montour (84), Northumberland (92), Perry (135), Pike (189), Potter (6), Schuylkill (408), Snyder (did not yet exist), Somerset (99), Sullivan (11), Susquehanna (160), Tioga (98), Union (101), Venango (40), Warren (78), Washington (1,559), Wayne (49), Westmoreland (446), and Wyoming (5).

The highest percentages of blacks in the population of the Appalachian area in 1850 were in Fayette County (over 4%), Washington and Pike counties (over 3%), Mifflin, Allegheny, and Greene counties (over 2%), and Bedford County (almost 2%). In the Appalachians, blacks were concentrated in 1850 in the Monongahela River Valley in which the river flows north from West Virginia toward Pittsburgh (Fayette, Greene, Washington, and Allegheny counties). Blacks were also prominent in the (Little) Juniata and (West) Susquehanna River Valleys in the Appalachian Mountain section (Mifflin, Bedford, and nearby counties) and in the middle Delaware River Valley, in the Glaciated Low Plateau section (Pike County). As of 1850, 37,768 resident blacks (70.4%) had been born in the state, and 15,163 (28.3%) had been born out of state. Only 312 had been born in foreign countries. Another 383 provided no details of their place of birth. As of 1920, there were 284,568 black residents in the state, representing 3.26 percent of the total population of 8,720,017.

In 1920, of the 281,548 resident blacks who reported their state of birth, 100,500 (35.7%) had been born in the state, 60,843 (21.6%) in Virginia, 23,771 in Maryland, 16,664 in North Carolina, 16,196 in Georgia, 11,624 in South Carolina, and 9,994 in Alabama. Another 6,154 had been born in Delaware, 5,370 in Florida, 3,973 in New Jersey, 3,597 in the District of Columbia, 3,445 in Tennessee, 2,807 in West Virginia, 2,699 in Ohio, 2,585 in Kentucky, 1,985 in New York, 1,324 in Mississippi, and 1,316 in Texas.

By 1990, there were 1,089,795 black residents in the total population of 11,881,643, or 9.17 percent of the state population. As of 2000, there were 1,224,612 black residents (claiming only one race) in the total population of 12,281,054, or 9.97 percent of the state population

The Pennsylvania State Choir (Gospel label) presumably hailed from the state.

Allegheny County

Braddock (borough). Location (2001) of First COGIC (700 Talbot St.); and Calvary AME Church (441 Sixth St.).

Clairton (city). Location (2001) of Gethsemane COGIC (200 Crest St.).

Duquesne (city). Birthplace of Earl "Fatha" Hines.

Elizabeth (township). Location (2001) of Allen Chapel AME Church (606 Fifth Ave.).

Homestead (borough). Location (2001) of Prayer and Deliverance COGIC (Pastor, Bernard Marable); and Park Place AME Church (215 East Tenth Ave.).

McKeesport (city). Location (2001) of Trinity COGIC (2216 Jenny Lind St.; Pastor, Bishop James Miles Foster); Christ Temple AME Church (937 Rose St.); and Saint Paul AME Church (1350 Locust St.).

North Braddock (borough). Location (2001) of Holy Temple COGIC (609-611 Jones Ave.; Pastor, James Gray).

Pittsburgh (city). Celebrated in Martha Copeland's "Wylie Avenue Blues" (1927). Birthplace of blues scholar Mack McCormick (1930). Possible place of death of the Rev. Edward Clayborn (1978). Residence of the Rev. Edward Clayborn (1920); George Benson; Harold Betters (1997); The Blues Burners (1991); The Blues Orphans (1991); David Budway (1991); Maureen Budway (1991); Alex Channey; Chismo Charles (1991); Martha Copeland; Cryin' John; Willie Durant; Billy Eckstine; Chuck Edwards (1960s); Clare Fisher; Lonnie Fisher; J. Gaitwood (of The Smoothtones, 1955); Errol Garner (deceased); Big John Greer (1950s); Earl Hines (deceased); Elder Nat Hollis; George Hornsby; Sam Hurt; Eddie Jefferson (deceased); Nyles Jones (alias Robert Jones--to Carolina); Gertie Long; Louisiana Red (to Germany); Stumpy Joe McAllister; Delsey McKay (1992); Ezell Monk; Harry Parks; Jimmy Ponder (1991 and 1997); Billy Price and the Swingtime Five (1991); Lloyd "Fat Man" Smith (1956); The Smoothtones (1955); Sandy Staley (1991); Dakota Staton; Henry Tabb (deceased); James "Blood" Ulmer (1960s); and Jon Walton. Location (1998) of Get Hop Records and Distribution. Location (2001) of Bethany COGIC (110 Wooster St.); Damascus COGIC (524 East North Ave.; Pastor, Manuel Berry); Church of God in Christ (615 Taft Ave.); Faith Center COGIC (44 Mayflower St.; Pastor, Elijah Thomas Jr.); First COGIC (2502 Center Ave.; Pastor, Bishop James Miles Foster); Grace Tabernacle COGIC (Pastor, Clayton Walker Jr.); Greater Faith Tabernacle COGIC (550 North Homewood Ave.; Pastor, Billy Terry); Greater Tabernacle COGIC (8304 Frankstown Ave.); Morningside COGIC (5173 Dearborn St.); Mt. Olive COGIC (7239 Mount Carmel Rd.); Northside Institutional COGIC (Pastor, Bishop Eugene M. Thorpe); Pentecostal Temple COGIC (6300 East Liberty); Refuge COGIC (167 Fortieth St.); (2001) Christ Missionary Baptist Church (344 Hale St.); Rodman Street Missionary Baptist Church (6111 Rodman St.; Pastor, Delano R. Paige); (2001) Allen Chapel AME Church (1810 Fulton St.); Avery Memorial AME Church (3403 California Ave.); Bethel AME Church (2720 Webster Ave.); Brown Chapel AME Church (1400 Boyle St); Christian Chapel AME Church (10 Ridgeview St.); Homewood AME Church (724 North Homewood Ave.); New Life AME Church (8320 Frankstown Rd.); Saint Mark AME Church (1409 Montier St.); Saint Mark AME Zion Church (807 Ross Ave.); Trinity AME Zion Church (3548 Centralia St.); Trinity AME Church (2528 Mahon St.); Trinity AME Church (2700 Wylie Ave.); Wesley Center AME Zion Church (2701 Centre Ave.); John Wesley AME Zion Church (594 Herron Ave.); and West End AME. Zion Church (623 South Main St.). Pittsburgh's labels included: Bogus Records (1998); and Jem (1955).

Sewickley (borough). Location (2001) of Saint Matthew's AME Zion Church (345 Thorn St.).

Beaver County

Aliquippa (city). Location (2001) of Deliverance Temple COGIC (234 Kiehl St.; Pastor, Marvin C. Moreland); First COGIC (741 Griffith St.); Holy Temple COGIC; Miracle COGIC (115 Wilker St.; Pastor, Dr. David A. Armstead); Open Door COGIC (908 Main St.); St. John Missionary Baptist Church (1210 Sheffield Ave.); Ebenezer AME Church (1015 Davis St.); and Emmanuel AME Zion Church (185 Sixth Ave.).

Beaver. Location (2001) of St. John AME Church (702-715 Mulberry St.).

Beaver Falls (city). Birthplace of Papa John Creach (1917) (to Los Angeles--deceased). Location (2001) of Christ Temple COGIC (2420 Ninth Ave.; Pastor, Channing L. Hobson); and Upper Room COGIC.

Leetsdale. Location (2001) of First Missionary Baptist Church.

New Brighton (borough). Location (2001) of Wayman Chapel AME Church (1120 Sixth Ave.).

Rochester (borough). Residence of the Rev. Oshea L. Vreen (also Midland, Washington County).

Blair County

Altoona (city). Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church (1620 Sixteenth St.).

Centre County

State College (borough). Residence of the Triple A Blues Band (2001). Location of Zeno's (club).

Crawford County

Meadville (city). Location of Say Mo' Music (1998).

Erie County

Erie (city). Residence of the Erie Harmonizers. Location (2001) of Superior Emmanuel COGIC (826 West Eighteenth St.; Pastor, Willie Damper).

Fayette County

Connellsville (city). Location (2003) of Payne AME Church.

McClellandsville. Location (2003) of Mallory Chapel AME Church.

Uniontown (city). Location (2001-2003) of Uniontown COGIC (55 Butler St.; Pastor, Frank J. Jacobs); John Wesley AME Zion Church (349 East Main St.); and Saint Paul AME Church (187 Morgantown St.).

Huntingdon County

Mount Union (borough). Residence (2001) of Diane McDaniel. Location (2001) of Tabernacle Church of God (202 West Walnut St.); Mt. Hope Missionary Baptist Church (3 West Chestnut St.); and Bethel AME Church (16 West Grant St.).

Indiana County

Homer City. Location (2001) of Victory Baptist Church (139 East Wiley St.).

Indiana (borough). Location (2001) of Faith Temple COGIC (625 Knox St.; Pastor, Stanford A. Webb Jr.).

Lackawanna County

Clarks Summit. Residence (2001) of Teddy Young and The Aces.

Scranton. Location (1998) of Blues Street label. Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church (716 North Washington Ave.).

Lawrence County

New Castle (city). Location (2001) of Bible Way COGIC (125 North Crawford St.; Pastor, John Young III); Prayer Chapel COGIC (210 Pearson St.); Bethel AME Church (312 Green St.); and Saint Luke AME Zion Church (603 Harbor St.).

Luzerne County

Hazleton/West Hazleton. Location of Roads End (club) (2001).

North Wilkes-Barre. Location of Arco label (1950).

Pittston. Residence of Teddy Young and The Aces (2001).

Plains. Location of Riverstreet Jazz Cafe (club) (2001).

Wilkes-Barre (city). Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church (500 South Franklin St.).

Lycoming County

Hughesville. Location (1990 to at least 2001) of Billtown Blues Association Inc. (http://www.billtownblues.org).

Mercer County

Farrell (city). Location (2001) of Greater Mount Zion COGIC (1825 Roemer).

Sharon (city). Location (2001) of Ruth AME Zion Church (95 West Connelly).

Mifflin County

Lewistown (borough). Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church (23 Juniata St.).

Monroe County

Saylorsburg. Location of Sprinkle label (1998).

Pike County

Milford. Location of No Mo Do Records (1998). Location of the Water Wheel (club) (2001).

Snyder County

Selinsgrove (borough). Residence of Greg Burgess (2001).

Venango County

Franklin (city). Location of Process Music.

Washington County

Donora (borough, 14.8% black, in 2000). Location (2001) of Whole Truth COGIC (1004 McKean Ave.; Pastor, Elder Maurice Bernard Wade Sr.--began in 1953 at 544 Meldon Ave); and Quinn Chapel AME Church (317 First St.).

Lawrence. Location (1973) of St. John Baptist Church.

Midland. Location (2001) of Faith Temple COGIC (353 Midland Ave.; Pastor, Oshea Vreen Sr.--see Rochester, Beaver County).

Westmoreland County

Derry. Location (2001) of Congregational COGIC (Pastor, A. B. Johnson).

Monessen (city). Location (2001) of Gate of Heaven COGIC (644 Reed Ave. or 688 McKee St.; Pastor, William C. Bass).

Trafford. Location (1960s-2001) of Mount Bethel Baptist Church (303 Brinton Ave.).

South Carolina

South Carolina has been a most important state for both blues and gospel music. The first English settlement was in 1670 at Albemarle Point, which by 1680 had transferred to nearby Charleston. In contrast to the mainly English settlement of the low country, people of Scottish and Irish descent were the major white settlers in the upcountry areas.

As of 1850, the state had 668,507 people, of whom 384,984 (57.56%) were slaves and 8,960 (1.34%) were free colored. Charleston's population was 42,985 in 1850, of whom 19,532 were slaves and 3,441 free colored. The next largest town was Columbia, with 6,060 people, of whom 2,680 were slaves and 196 free colored. Greenville had 1,305, just under half of whom were black, and Spartanburg had 1,176, with a black majority.

As of 1920, black populations in upcountry and fall line counties included 27,392 in Spartanburg County, 26,312 in Anderson County, and 23,461 in Greenville County. By 2000, there were 1,200,901 black (or partly black) residents in the state, including 70,906 in Greenville County, and 53,651 in Spartanburg County.

Counties falling within the ambit of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003 were Anderson, Cherokee, Greenville, Oconee, Pickens, and Spartanburg. Oconee County was formed from Pickens County in 1868. Cherokee County was formed in 1897 from parts of Spartanburg, Union, and York counties.

From somewhere in the state came, or reportedly (or possibly) came, the following: Wilson Baker (Dixie Hummingbirds); Banks Bentley Blake and Vosburg; Brooks Berry; Black Billy Sunday (Calvin P. Dixon--New Orleans?); Bright Moon Quartet; Brown Brothers Jubilee Quartet; Jimmy Bryant (Dixie Hummingbirds); The Carolina Blazers; The Carolina Cotton Pickers; Carolina Washboard Trio (a Walter Taylor group); Mary Dixon; Uncle Joe Dobson; Eagle Jubilee Four; Eugene Foster (Detroit Piano Fats--born 1928); William Francis; Lacey Gibson (born 1936); Gospel Light Jubilee Singers; Griff; Robert Higgins; the Rev. A. G. Holly; James Jamerson (Funk Brothers); Hezekiah Jenkins (born ca. 1889); Bobby King (born 1943) (with Terry Evans); Shelly Magee and Blues DeVille; Frank Martin (born ca. 1854); Earl McDonald (to Louisville, Kentucky, at age 2); Warren Milton (promoter--born 1926); Sam Montgomery; Moore Spiritual Singers; Palmetto Jazz Quartette (recorded 1921); Seven Stars Quartette; Brad Lee Sexton (born 1947; died New Paltz, New York, 1995); Silvertone Jubilee Quartette; Tommy "Dr. Jive" Smalls (?); Albert Smith (age 84 in 1997); Sonny Boy and Lonnie; The South Carolina Quartette (1928); Richard Sowell (Kentucky?); Spark Plug Smith; Sweet Betty; Sweet Georgia Brown (born ca. 1948--to New York); Blind Joe Taggart (also Blind Percy?); Tampa Kid; James "J. T." Taylor (of Kool and The Gang--born 1953); Henrietta Waddy (born 1900); Gertrude Ward (born 1900); Herbert "King" Whitaker (born 1929 or in Columbia in 1921?); and Jimmy Williams (Bluzblasters--born 1962).

The state is celebrated in Willie Walker's "South Carolina Rag" (recorded 1930).

Anderson County

Anderson (city, 8,678 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Kip Anderson (but see Starr, Anderson County) (1945). Location (2001-2003) of Bethel AME Church (810 South Fant St.).

Denver Community (Anderson). Location (2003) of Fairview AME Church.

Pendleton (town, 981 black residents in 2000). Location of Mt. Sinai Baptist Church.

Starr. Birthplace of Kip Anderson (1945).

Williamston (town, 670 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Blue Scotty (Milford Scott) (1937).

Cherokee County

Blacksburg (town, 443 black residents in 2000). Location of Hopewell Presbyterian Church; (1995) All-Male Chorus of Blacksburg (gospel).

Draytonville Township. Residence of Sharon Goudlock (also spelled Sharron Gowdlock) (1930).

Gaffney (city, 5,730 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of John Acey (Goudelock) (1925).

Greenville County

Fountain Inn (city, 1,824 black residents in 2000--partly in Laurens County). Birthplace of dancer Clayton "Peg Leg" Bates (1907).

Greenville (city, 19,008 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Roosevelt "Baby" Brooks (1905); Josh White Sr. (1914); William "Cat" Anderson (1916; died Norwalk, California, 1981); James Davis (1916) (Dixie Hummingbirds); Mack Arnold; producer Chuck Jackson (1945) (of The Independents fame); Moses Dillard (1946; died Nashville, Tennessee, 1993); Ann Sexton (1950); and Peabo Bryson (1951). Place of death of George Walker (1928); Willie Walker (1895--1933); and dancer Clayton "Peg Leg" Bates (1998). Residence of Will Bonds (1913); Roosevelt "Baby" Brooks; Sam Brooks; Gary Davis (1913); George Walker (1911 onward); Blind Joe Walker (1911 onward); Willie Walker (1911 to 1933); Baby Tate (ca. 1926); Gary Davis (1920) (207 Oscar St.); Roosevelt Brooks (1930) (109 Cagle St.); Samuel Brooks (103A Glover St.); Willie Walker (121 Glover St.); Al Freeman and The Upsetters (1965); Tex-Town Display (1970s); Cornell Blakely; Sister O. M. Terrell; Annie Griggs (1997); and Cootie Stark. Location of Mount Sinai Baptist Church; (2003) Allen Temple AME Church (109 Green Ave.); (2003) New Harvest Ministries COGIC (Pastor, Carl McCluney); and New Jerusalem COGIC (Pastor, Troy Jarvis). Greenville's music publishers included Rencoll Music (1974). Greenville's record labels included Pioneer (?).

Greer (city). Black population mainly in Spartanburg County.

Paris Mountain (township). location (1920) and possible birthplace of Luther Magby.

Oconee County

Oconee County. Birthplace of white "talking blues" exponent Christopher Allen "Chris" Bouchillon (1893; died West Palm Beach, Florida, 1968); and J. C. Staggers (to Georgia). Residence of Hansell Staggers; and Jessie Godine.

Seneca (city; 2,584 black residents in 2000). Residence of J. D. Benson (at least 1991 to 1998) (harmonica; born ca. 1915).

Walhalla (city, 263 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Steve Mancha (1945); and Clyde Wilson (1945) (100 Proof Aged in Soul).

Pickens County

Clemson (city, 1,359 black residents in 2000). Residence of Sam Brooks. Place of death of Sam Brooks (1966). Recording location of Phil Butler (1939); William Grant (1939); Mary Lee (1939); Thomas Trimmer (1939); and Brady Walker (1939). Location of Little John's Club (African-American musical venue).

Easley (city, 2,096 black residents in 2000). Residence of the Jackson Brothers (gospel) (1950s onward, to at least 1999).

Spartanburg County

Chesnee (city, 276 black residents in 2000). Location of Fairview Christian Methodist Episcopal Church (2050 Little Africa Rd.).

Drayton. Burial place of Pink Anderson.

Moore. Place of death of Toy T. Caldwell Jr. (1993).

Spartanburg (city, 19,658 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Clara Smith (ca. 1894) (Columbia label--died Detroit in 1935); Roland Martin (ca. 1894); Blind Gussie Nesbitt (1906); Ted Bogan (1910); William Bobo (1915) (Dixie Hummingbirds--died 1976); Lloyd "Fatman" Smith (1921); Ira Tucker (1925) (Dixie Hummingbirds); Obediah Carter (1925); Arthur Prysock (1924) (to North Carolina by 1930--died 1997); Bill Woodruff (1929) (of Sensational Nightingales); Julius "June" Cheeks (1929); and Alvin "Little Pink" Anderson (1954). Place of death of Simmie Dooley (1961). Residence of Frank Martin (ca. 1900); John Anderson (early 1900s); Pink Anderson (from early 1900s until his death in 1974); "Trottin' Sally" (fiddle); Simeon "Simmie" Dooley; Dr. W. R. Kerr's Medicine Show (to 1945); Keg Shorty Bell (harp); Arthur "Peg Leg Sam" Jackson; Charley "Chilly Willy" Williams (washboard); Big Chief Thundercloud; Johnny Blowers; Russ Fiske; Howard "Dad" Gaffney; Alvin Jolly; Henry Letman; Arthur Prysock; Red Prysock; George Ed Thompson; Roland Martin (1930; age 35); Alvin Anderson (son of Pink) (1997); The Baronets (including June Cheeks) (1940s); Arthur Beatty (?); William Bobo (to Philadelphia); Cornelia Bogan (1910; died 1950); Roosevelt "Baby" Brooks (1970); Sam Brooks (died at Clemson, Pickens County, 1966); Julius "June" Cheeks (1940s); Spartanburg Famous Four; Charles "Baby" Tate (1926 onward) (died Columbia); Fred Whitmore (died 1937); and the New Legacy Duo (Freddie Vanderford and Brandon Turner) (2001). Location of Mt. Sinai Baptist Church; and (2003) First AME Church (504 North Church St.).

Tennessee

Tennessee has had a range of prominent blues and gospel performers, but with an emphasis on the western and central parts of the state.

The state is mentioned in numerous titles, including "When I Dream of Old Tennessee Blues" (Josie Miles, 1922); "Memphis, Tennessee" (Lena Wilson, 1922; and Ethel Ridley, 1923); "Tennessee Blues" (Viola Bartlette, 1925); "State of Tennessee Blues" (Memphis Jug Band, 1927); "Tennessee Blues" (Leroy Carr, 1928); "I'm Going Back to Tennessee" (Leroy Carr, 1929); "Down in Tennessee" (Lonnie Clark, 1929); "Tennessee Peaches" (Peetie Wheatstraw, 1930); "Gonna Beat It Back to Tennessee" (Monkey Joe, 1935); "Nashville, Tennessee" (Washboard Sam, 1936); "Tennessee Dog" (Jimmie Strothers and Joe Lee, 1936); "Easin' Back to Tennessee" (Sleepy John Estes, 1937); "Tennessee Woman Blues" (Johnny Shines, 1946); and "Tennessee Woman" (Fenton Robinson, 1958).

The state has lent its name to performers such as "Tennessee" (possibly Lee Crisp); another "Tennessee" (female); The Tennessee Chocolate Drops (Armstrong, Martin, Martin; also billed as The Tennessee Trio); The Tennessee Gabriel (a pseudonym for Brownie McGhee); The Tennessee Shakers (possibly the Mississippi Blacksnakes); and The Tennessee Trio (alias Tennessee Chocolate Drops).

In the 1850 Census, the state had a population of 1,002,717, of which 756,836 (75.5%) were white, 6,422 were free colored, and 239,459 were slaves. There were 40,277 slaves in the Appalachian region, with the biggest concentrations in Smith, Franklin, and Knox counties. In 1850, Smith County was among the main tobacco-producing counties.

The only Appalachian counties growing more than two thousand bales of cotton in 1919 were Bradley, McMinn, and Polk, each with less than 1 percent of the state's output. Sweet potato production in 1919 was substantial in Hamilton and Knox counties. Counties in which more than 70 percent of farmland was "improved" in 1919 included Greene, Hamblen, Jefferson, and Washington. Those Appalachian counties where tobacco was commercially significant (over 200,000 pounds produced) included Clay, Cocke, Coffee, Franklin, Greene, Jackson, Macon, Monroe, Putnam, Smith, and Washington. Of these, Greene produced more than 5 million pounds, Macon almost 5 million, Smith over 3 million, Washington over 2 million and Jackson I million pounds.

In 1920, there were 252,774 farms in the state, of which black farmers operated 38,182 (15.1%). Of the black farmers, 28,289 (74.1%) were tenant farmers. By contrast, only 35.2% of white farmers were tenants.

Of those 451,647 black residents of the state who gave their state of origin in 1920, 365,769 (81.0%) had been born in the state, 34,962 (7.7%) came from Mississippi, 12,660 (2.8%) from Alabama, and 12,225 (2.7%) from Georgia. Kentucky and Arkansas each supplied about 1 percent of the black population. Both the 1850 and 1920 figures support the notion that a distinctive musical style could have arisen in the state, augmented by migrants from adjacent states.

By 1920, the main Appalachian counties with large black populations were Hamilton County (27,120) and Knox County (13,310). By 1990, there were 54,477 black residents in Hamilton County and 29,603 in Knox County.

Counties falling within the area of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003 were Anderson, Bledsoe, Blount, Bradley, Campbell, Cannon, Carter, Claiborne, Clay, Cocke, Coffee, Cumberland, De Kalb, Fentress, Franklin, Grainger, Greene, Grundy, Hamblen, Hamilton, Hancock, Hawkins, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Knox, Loudon, Macon, Marion, McMinn, Meigs, Monroe, Morgan, Overton, Pickett, Polk, Putnam, Rhea, Roane, Scott, Sequatchie, Sevier, Smith, Sullivan, Unicoi, Union, Van Buren, Warren, Washington, and White.

People or groups who apparently hailed from Tennessee included King Mutt and His Tennessee Thumpers (1929); Horace George; John "Black Sampson" Gibson; Rochelle Harris; Allen Prothro; Jimmie Strothers and Joe Lee; Charles Tyus; and Baxter White (born ca. 1906). Clyde Lasley was born in the state in 1915. It was the place of death (1989) of saxophonist Sahib Shihab (born Edmund Gregory in Savannah, Georgia, 1925).

Blount County

Maryville (city, 681 black residents in 2000). Residence of Brownie McGhee (1930s).

Bradley County

Charleston (city, 148 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Latimore (Benjamin Lattimore) (1939).

Cleveland (city, 2,608 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Lowell Peters (1903) (of The Southernaires).

Campbell County

La Follette (43 black residents in 2000). Residence of Armstrong family (1920 and 1930).

Clay County

Free Hill (near Celina). Residence of Robert "Bud" Garrett (1916-1987).

Cocke County

Jonestown (a historical site with no population). Possible location referred to in both Banjo Joe's "Jonestown Blues" (1927) and Cannon's Jug Stompers' "Jonestown Blues" (1929). Compare (more likely) Jonestown in Giles County, Tennessee, and Jonestown in Coahoma County, Mississippi.

Coffee County

Tullahoma (city, 1,216 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of African-American folksong scholar John Work III (1901).

Franklin County

Cowan (city, 167 black residents in 2000). Location of Highway 41 Blues Band (2001) (http://www.hwy41bluesband.com); and Moonhog Music. Location (2001) of New Hope COGIC.

Decherd (city, 325 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of House of Prayer COGIC.

Winchester (city, 905 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the Rev. F. W. McGee (1890).

Hamblen County

Morristown (city, 1,870 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of Faith Temple Church of God in Christ (Pastor, Supt. Willie Allen).

Hamilton County

Brown's Ferry. Celebrated in "Brown's Ferry Blues" by The Delmore Brothers and "Brown Ferry Blues" by Tin-Ear Tanner.

Chattanooga (city, 56,086 black residents in 2000). Celebrated in "Chattanooga Blues" (performed by Mary H. Bradford, 1923, and Ida Cox, 1923); in Judson Coleman's song, "Goin' to Chattanooga" (20th Century 20-11, a "Kansas City Blues" variant); in Tin-Ear Tanner's "Brown Ferry Blues" (Bel-Tone 276, recorded by early 1946, and dealing with nearby Brown's Ferry); and by Clyde Bernhardt in "Chattanooga" (Blue Note BN 1203, recorded on October 6, 1949). Birthplace of Lovie Austin (Cora Calhoun) (1887); Bessie Smith (1894); Valaida Snow (1903); Alvaida Snow; Bill Oldham (1909); Lovie Lee (Eddie Lee Watson) (1909); Jimmy Blanton (1918); Bill Evans (alias Yusef Lateef) (1920; left in 1925); Tiny Kennedy (1925); Wilfred Middlebrooks (to Los Angeles by 1973); Arthur Brooks; Sam Gooden (1939); Richard Brooks (1940); Fred Cash (1940); Clyde Stubblefield (1943); and Bennie Wallace (1946). Possible birthplace of John T. Smith (ca. 1920); and Le Bron Scott. Residence of Judson Coleman (before 1946) (to New York); Tommy Braden (before 1951) (to Chicago by 1951); Tiny Kennedy (1951); Joe Doucett (before 1972); Nat Willis (1969); Houston Harmony Aires (before 1972); and Ed Huey ([e-mail]) (2001). Possible location of Andrew Baxter and Jim Baxter (from nearby Gordon County, Georgia); Billy Bird; and Marie Pryce (Soul Beat). Location (2001) of Living Word Ministries COGIC (Pastor, Darwin Randolph); McDowell Memorial COGIC (Pastor, Supt. C. H. Douglas); Power House Ministries COGIC; Temple of Faith COGIC (Pastor, Bishop Felton M. Smith Jr.); Temple of Faith COGIC; True Light COGIC (Pastor, Willie Jefferson); United Tabernacle COGIC (Pastor, Ronnie Z. Rowe Sr.); (2001) Warren Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Charlene N. Boone); Bethel AME Church (the Rev. Michael Broadnax); St. Paul AME Church (the Rev. George L. Byrd); Brown's Temple AME (the Rev. Anthony Carter); Bethel AME Church (the Rev. Freeman Cooper); Solomon Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Elvy D. Davis); Quinn Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Clarence G. Finch Jr.); Clayborn Temple AME Church (the Rev. Etta Garth); Bethel AME Church (the Rev. Ronald Glenn); St. Paul (Agnew) AME Church (the Rev. A. C. Griffin Jr.); Shorter AME Church (the Rev. Chris Grizzard); Joseph Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Everett Hobson); Rayborn/Suggs Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Fred Houser); St. John AME Church (the Rev. Gloria Kirkpatrick); Berry Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Willie L. Leslie); Prospect Circuit AME Church (the Rev. Earnest M. Latham); St. Paul AME Church (the Rev. Carl C. Liggin); Campbell Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Daniel McCandless); Powell Chapel AME Church (Sis. Ruby Mason); Allen Temple AME Church (the Rev. Willie Moses); Roundhill AME Church (the Rev. Barbara Sanderfur); Mulberry Circuit AME Church (the Rev. Dickey Sebastian); Friendship Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Lance Shelton); Mary's Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Joe T. Southall); St. James AME Church (the Rev. Johnny R. Watson Jr.); St. Paul AME Church (the Rev. Eddie L. Williams); Bethel AME Church (2000 Walker Street)

Hawkins County

Rogersville (town, 172 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of Community Chapel COGIC.

Jefferson County

Sourwood Mountain (near New Market). Possible site of the mountain referred to in Joe Evans and Arthur McClain's song "Sourwood Mountain" (Banner 32264)--compare Sourwood Mountain, Russell County, Virginia; compare the earlier version (1924) by Stovepipe No. 1.

Knox County

Knox County is celebrated by the Tennessee Chocolate Drops in "Knox County Stomp" (1930). Compare "Vine Street Drag" (also 1930), which presumably refers to a main street in Knoxville.

Knoxville (city, 28,171 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Brownie McGhee (1915); Granville "Stick" McGhee (1917); and Sparky Rucker (1946). Place of death of Ida Cox (1967); producer Gus Gossert (1976); and Sara Duncan Jordan (2001). Residence of Leola Manning; Senior Chapel Quartet (1929); Swan Silvertones (alias Bakery Swans) (1940s); Jordan Webb (1940s); Tina Turner; "Snow" (with Brownie McGhee and LeRoy Dallas); Julius King (1930); Bootleg Blues (2001); Michael Crawley and The MacDaddies; The Delta Souls; Blue Barry Faust; Clara Landau; Cheryl Renee's Blues Band; Slow Blind Hill; and Don Wise. Possible location of Charlie Jordan; and Charlie Manson (possibly from Montgomery County). Location (2001) of Children of God COGIC (Pastor, Phillip D. Hamilton Sr.); Greater First COGIC (Pastor, Donald L. Derrickson Sr.); Morning Star Baptist Church; Smith Chapel COGIC (Pastor, Willie Allen); Trinity Tabernacle COGIC (Pastor, Billy F. Brooks); and Bethel AME Church (2460 Parkview Ave.). Location (1940s to at least 1968) of radio KBIR; Sassy Ann's (club) (2001); Wonderdog Records; and Knoxville Blues Society (http://www.korrnet.org/kbs).

McMinn County

Athens (city, 1,232 black residents in 2000). Residence of Howard Armstrong.

Vonore. Residence of Brownie McGhee and Sticks McGhee (1928 to 1933).

Morgan County

Oakdale. Birthplace of King Pleasure (Clarence Beeks) (1922).

Overton County

Livingston (town, 21 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Roy Roberts (1942).

Rhea County

Dayton (city, 325 black residents in 2000). Residence of Howard Armstrong and family (before 1920).

Sullivan County

Bristol (city, 736 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Ulysses Livingston (1912).

Kingsport (city, 1,897 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Cripple Clarence Lofton (1887). Residence of Brownie McGhee and Sticks McGhee (1920); Edward Martin (1930); Esley Riddle (alias Leslie Riddle); and Steve Tarter. Location (2001) of Powerful New Life COGIC (Pastor, Hugh A. Hale); and Bethel AME Zion Church (812 Maple St.).

Warren County

Campaign. Residence of Murphy Gribble (1940s); Albert Lusk; and John York.

Washington County

Johnson City (city, 3,549 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Terry Garland (1953). Last residence of Harry Gay (1979). Location (2001) of Greater Love COGIC (Pastor, R. M. Charles).

White County

Sparta (city, 243 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tommie Lee "Tom" Armstrong (1936). Residence of Howard Armstrong (1936); and other Armstrong family members.

Virginia

Virginia has been much neglected by students of African-American music. The state was the cradle for the plantation system of agriculture that had spread throughout the southern states of the United States by the time of the Civil War and of the institutionalized slavery of Africans. By 1660, blacks made up 11.5 percent of the colony's population. The first law permitting slavery in the colony was passed in 1661, giving legal recognition to the de facto situation.

In 1763, the colony of Virginia had about 60,000 blacks, about the same number as the white population. After the end of the French wars, with Virginia attracting many white settlers, the slave trade dramatically increased. Probably about 100,000 slaves were landed in Virginia in the next fifteen years. Although Virginia banned the African slave trade in 1778, it did not abolish slavery within its own borders. The number of blacks in the state had increased to 305,493 by the 1790 Census, when Virginia included about 40 percent of the black population of the United States (757,208 slaves). Virginia's black population was almost three times as large as that of each of Maryland, South Carolina, and North Carolina, which had the next largest black populations. Virginia's blacks also comprised about 40 percent of Virginia's population.

With the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793, the demand for slaves began to spread far beyond the dedicated tobacco-growing areas and beyond South Carolina's rice-growing coast. Indications are that almost 140,000 blacks were moved out of Virginia in the peak decade from 1830 to 1840 to serve as slaves on cotton or tobacco plantations, often to Missouri, Kentucky, or Tennessee.

It is logical that musicians from Virginia would have had an influence on musical traditions in the areas settled by slaves from Virginia. For example, although he was born much later than the movement being discussed, Luke Jordan's minstrel-influenced music echoes in that of performers like Ralph Willis and Geeshie Wiley. These echoes may derive from those performers having heard his records, but on the other hand, they may demonstrate the widespread influence of Virginia music during the nineteenth century.

By 1850, there were 894,800 whites, 54,333 free colored, and 472,528 slaves in the state (which still included what became West Virginia). Of the 894,800 whites in the state in 1850, 813,891 (91%) had been born in the state. Of the 54,333 free colored population, no fewer than 53,800 (99%) had been born in the state. No figures for slaves were published.

The 1860 Census was the last taken during the slavery era. The extracted statistics do not record the state of origin of the slaves, but the states of origin of free colored Americans are shown. In 1860, of the 1,401,410 free persons counted who had been born in Virginia (which then still included West Virginia), over 71 percent still resided in the State. Ohio (5.4%), Missouri (3.9%), Kentucky (3.2%), Indiana (2.6%), and Tennessee (2.6%), Illinois (2.4%), and Iowa (1.3%) had absorbed the largest numbers of Virginia-born freemen.

It is significant that the larger numbers of free Virginia-born expatriates were moving west to prospective tobacco-growing areas, and presumably their slaves would also be in demand in those areas, having had experience with tobacco growing. It should be expected that early Virginian musical traditions would have had strong impact in Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee but less impact in the states of the Deep South.

In 1870, the black population of Virginia was 512,841, of whom 72,248 were classified as mulatto. Despite the continued substantial emigration of blacks from the state, its African-American population by 1910 was still 671,096, of whom 222,910 were self-classified as mulatto. As late as 1910, the urban black population of the state was only 158,218, compared with 512,878 rural dwellers.

After emancipation and cessation of hostilities (1865), the pattern of emigration changed markedly. Figures from the 1920 Census show that about 70 percent of the 883,140 blacks who had been born in Virginia still resided in the state. As of 1920, the largest numbers of Virginia-born emigrant blacks were resident in Pennsylvania (7%), New York (3.5%), West Virginia (3.5%), the District of Columbia (3.5%), Maryland (3%), New Jersey (2.5%), Ohio (2%), and North Carolina (1%). The number of emigrants counted roughly equaled the number of blacks who had left the state in the previous four decades, indicating that the new emigration pattern had been operating at least since about 1880; the change presumably dates from soon after 1865. The changed pattern suggests that Virginia-born black musicians would have had little direct influence over other southern black musicians from emancipation onward, but would have had substantial influence in the North Atlantic states.

By 1920, only 689,361 black residents lived in Virginia, and (among blacks still living then) 193,779 more had left the state than had moved into it. Of those blacks living in Virginia as of 1920, almost 90 percent had been born in Virginia, while almost 7 percent had been born in North Carolina, I percent in South Carolina, and almost I percent in Alabama.

Apart from musicians from nearby North Carolina, and apart from recordings and traveling shows, there would have been minimal local direct influence by other black musicians on black Virginia-born musicians. This suggests that the blues approaches that developed in Virginia and North Carolina were largely nurtured in the area, rather than having been imported from elsewhere.

The state has been commemorated in the following song titles: "Virginia Blues" (recorded by Lizzie Miles); "(There's a Blue Ridge in My Heart) Virginia" (recorded by Eva Taylor); "Sweet Virginia Blues" (recorded by Mamie Smith); "I'm Coming, Virginia" (recorded by The Variety Four); "Goin' to Virginia" (recorded by Ralph Willis); and "Down in Virginia" (recorded by Jimmy Reed). Compare the "hillbilly" song, "The Virginian Strike of '23" (by Earl Shirkey and Roy Harper). The state lent its name to the "Virginian" train, which was the subject of "hillbilly" songs such as "The Wreck of the Virginian" (recorded by Blind Alfred Reed); and "The Wreck of the Virginian no. 3" (recorded by Roy Harvey).

As of 1990, there were reportedly 373,756 black Baptist Church adherents in the state (6.04% of the state's population), compared with 32,114 adherents to the African Methodist Episcopal Zion church (0.52%). By 2000, there were 1,441,207 black residents in the state.

Counties falling within the purview of the Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003 were Alleghany, Bath, Bland, Botetourt, Buchanan, Carroll, Craig, Dickenson, Floyd, Giles, Grayson, Highland, Lee, Montgomery, Pulaski, Rockbridge, Russell, Scott, Smyth, Tazewell, Washington, Wise, and Wythe. Independent cities in Virginia within the Appalachian region were Bristol, Buena Vista, Covington, Galax, Lexington, Norton, and Radford.

Counties formerly within the commission's definition of Appalachia ("Foothills") are: Albemarle, Amherst, Augusta, Bedford, Clarke, Culpeper, Fauquier, Franklin, Frederick, Greene, Loudoun, Madison, Nelson, Page, Patrick, Rappahannock, Roanoke, Rockingham, Shenandoah, and Warren. Independent cities in this region, which generally occupies the foothills between the Blue Ridge and the Piedmont proper or in the Ridge and Valley section, are Bedford, Charlottesville, Clifton Forge, Harrisonburg, Lynchburg, Roanoke, Salem, Staunton, Waynesboro, and Winchester.

Historically, there were greater numbers of blacks in some parts of the Appalachian and Foothills regions than at present. In the Appalachian region of the state, there were twelve slaves for each free colored person in 1850. The same ratio applied overall in the Foothills region, but with extremes from eighty-seven slaves to each free colored person in Franklin County to less than three to one in Frederick County. The slave populations in 1850 of counties falling in the Appalachian Regional Commission's area were Alleghany (694, about 20%), Bath (947, almost 28%), Bland (did not yet exist), Botetourt (3,736, 25%), Buchanan (did not yet exist), Carroll (154), Craig (did not yet exist), Dickenson (did not yet exist), Floyd (443), Giles (657, 10%), Grayson (409), Highland (364), Lee (787), Montgomery (1,471, 17%), Pulaski (1,471, almost 29%), Rockbridge (4,197, 26%), Russell (982), Scott (473), Smyth (1,064, 13%), Tazewell (1,060, 10%), Washington (2,131, 14%), Wise/Norton (did not yet exist), and Wythe (2,185, 18%). Only Lexington (1850 slave population of 552, Rockbridge County) and Christiansburg (Montgomery County, 156 slaves) were significant black Appalachian towns as of 1850.

In the former Appalachian Regional Commission cities and counties, Charlottesville (Albemarle County, 840 slaves), Front Royal (Warren County, 168), Leesburg (Loudoun County, 452), Lynchburg (Campbell County, 3,424), Scottsville (Albemarle County, 206), and Winchester (Frederick County, 377) were significant slave towns as of 1850. The 1850 slave populations for now-excluded counties were Albemarle (13,368), Amherst (5,953), Augusta (5,053), Bedford (10,061), Clarke (3,614), Culpeper (6,683), Fauquier (10,350), Franklin (5,726), Frederick (2,294), Greene (1,699), Loudoun (5,641), Madison (4,724), Nelson (6,142), Page (957), Patrick (2,324), Rappahannock (3,844), Roanoke (2,510), Rockingham (2,331), Shenandoah (911), and Warren (1,748).

Black populations in 2000 for counties within the Appalachian Regional Commission area were Alleghany (317), Bath (317), Bland (288), Botetourt (1,073), Buchanan (708), Carroll (129), Craig (10), Dickenson (58), Floyd (277), Giles (263), Grayson (1,217), Highland (2), Lee (103), Montgomery (3,055), Pulaski (1,957), Rockbridge (617), Russell (934), Scott (139), Smyth (619), Tazewell (1,020), Washington (676), Wise (713), and Wythe (791). The 2000 black populations of independent cities within the Appalachian region were Bristol (967), Buena Vista (305), Covington (828), Galax (428), Lexington (713), Norton (240), and Radford (1,284). The other main centers of black population in the Appalachian region in 2000 were: Blacksburg (town, 1,738), Troutdale (town, 834), Christiansburg (town, 819), Pulaski (town, 734), Wytheville (town, 561), Tazewell (town, 392), Marion (town, 377), Abingdon (town, 265), Bluefield (town, 247), Big Stone Gap (town, 214), Grundy (town, 198), and Dublin (town, 196).

Black 2000 populations for the now-excluded counties were Albemarle (7,650), Amherst (6,311), Augusta (2,360), Bedford (3,767), Clarke (852), Culpeper (6,220), Fauquier (4,844), Franklin (4,420), Frederick (1,550), Greene (983), Loudoun (11,683), Madison (1,429), Nelson (2,151), Page (501), Patrick (1,203), Rappahannock (380), Roanoke (2,876), Rockingham (924), Shenandoah (412), and Warren (1,526). The 2000 black populations of independent cities within this region were Bedford (1,140), Charlottesville (10,009), Clifton Forge (627), Harrisonburg (2,394), Lynchburg (19,962), Roanoke (25,380), Salem (1,455), Staunton (3,328), Waynesboro (1,945), and Winchester (2,470).

Based on the the Mance Index, racial conditions in 1850 in the Appalachian region were apparently harshest, in descending order, in Pulaski, Washington, Montgomery, Bath, Lee, and Floyd counties. Applying the Mance Index to the excluded counties suggests that racial conditions in 1850 in the counties of Albermarle, Bedford, Franklin, Nelson, Fauquier, Madison, Clarke, Amherst, Culpeper, Greene, and Patrick were worse even than in Pulaski County. It is in those counties where the development of distinctively black Appalachian blues or gospel music might have been expected to occur. However, those are also the Appalachian counties most likely to lose black population by outmigration.

Performers who reputedly or possibly came from (or were based in) Virginia (without more specific information available) include John Acea (U.S. Army service, 1940s); Ted Bogan (before 1987--died in Detroit); Leonard Bowles (1978); James Cole; Yvonne Fair (died in Las Vegas, 1994); The Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet; Ruby Gowdy; The Harmonizing Four; Jeanette Price Harris (to Chicago); Clayton Horsley; Ellis Johnson (of The Harmonizing Four); Cora Perkins (born ca. 1887); Poor Jim (Brealon?--ca. 1950s); Cam label (ca. 1950s); Herbert Richardson; William Richardson; Julius Rose; Walter Taylor; Viola Gertrude Wells Underhill (Miss Rhapsody, born Virginia, 1902); and Dan Womack. The Southern Negro Quartet (Arthur Banks, George Berry, Joseph Bowe, Johnny Johnson, and Lemuel Turner), active in 1921, may have been from Virginia. The Virginia Female Jubilee Singers (Okeh, 1921) and the Virginia Male Quartet (Okeh, 1929) presumably hailed from Virginia. Compare the Virginia Four, possibly from Lynchburg. The Virginia State Ensemble, Weis label, presumably hailed from Virginia. L. E. Tucker and Roger Cox were apparently associated with Virginia. Herbert Halpert (of New York) conducted field recordings in the state in 1939.

Amherst County

Birthplace of Brown Pollard (1897). Residence of James Lowry (1970s).

Amherst (town, 667 black residents in 2000). Location of Jump Street (2001).

Augusta County

Fishersville (Census Designated Place, 199 black residents in 2000). Location of the Shenandoah Valley Blues Society (2001).

Bedford City

Bedford. Location of Roadhouse (2001).

Bedford County

Peaksville. Residence of Richard Wright.

Bland County

Rocky Gap. Location (2001) of Tynes Chapel AME Zion Church (Pastor, Rev. Andrew Montgomery).

Botetourt County

Buchanan (town). Location (2001) of First COGIC (Pastor, Elder Randall W. Jackson).

Bristol City

Bristol. Birthplace of Kenny Ballard (1925); and Moses Pelham (1934). Location of the famed Victor recordings in the late 1920s.

Charlottesville City

Residence of "Tippy" Rhodes; Hopper Grass [sic]; Danny (Gatton) and The Fatboys; The Fulltones (2001); and the Ian Gilliam Trio. Location (2001) of Bethel COGIC (Pastor, William Nard Jr.); and Loving COGIC (Pastor, Supt. William Coles).

Culpeper County

Birthplace of Cliff Jackson (1902; died in New York, 1970). Residence of George Goram (1936--on chain gang).

Culpeper (town, 2,290 black residents in 2000). Residence of Jeffrey Scott (2001 and 2002) (nephew of John Jackson).

Dickenson County

Clinchco. Residence of Earl Gilmore (1973).

Fauquier County

Bealeton. Location of The Good News Blues Band (2001).

Broad Run 20137. Location of Wynwood Music Company Inc. (2001), publisher for the late Nehemiah "Skip" James.

Warrenton (town, 1,100 black resident