Developmentally Responsive Multicultural Education for Young Adolescents.

Several psychosocial and cognitive developmental characteristics of young adolescents suggest that the early adolescence developmental period is an optimal time to introduce multicultural education. Younger children usually adopt parents' and significant others' opinions about people, and older adolescents often have well-formed opinions of other people. Young adolescents, however, need, and can benefit from, experiences designed to promote positive feelings toward themselves and others, as well as toward living in a diverse society. In this period, their developmental growth focuses on forming cultural identities; establishing close friendships with, and positive opinions of, others; and developing a sense of justice and fairness. Middle school educators can promote harmony among young adolescents, and within the community, by providing multicultural educational experiences that address these three developmental characteristics.

Diversity and Young Adolescents

Diversity's many forms--demographic, cultural, language, and other types--give it the potential to enrich teaching-learning experiences, enhance personal and social interactions, and enrich the schools and the community (Manning, 1996). Unfortunately, some young adolescents feel uncomfortable or threatened by rapidly changing demographics, cultural characteristics that differ from their own, and being in contact with people speaking "foreign" languages. While these feelings may not result in something so obvious as physical violence and aggressive behaviors, their consequences may seriously influence young adolescents' cultural identities, friendship formation, peer interactions, and sense of justice and fairness toward others.

Young adolescents sometimes feel uncomfortable with the unknown, whether it be a seemingly bizarre mannerism, a different form of dress, an unfamiliar hairstyle, or a particular type of music. Being around others speaking a different language can cause some people to feel uneasy, or even threatened. A person of a particular social class may feel uncomfortable with the habits, mindsets, and expectations of a person from a different social class. These feelings result from not understanding (or being unwilling to accept) others' diversity.

Language differences also can create a sense of uneasiness among young people (as well as older people). In 1993, reports from the U.S. Bureau of the Census documented dramatic increases in non-English-speaking people in the United States (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993a, 1993b). Three million students in the United States speak little or no English. Spanish is the native tongue of 70 percent of these students, followed by Asian languages (15 percent). California has 40 percent of the nation's limited English-speaking students; Texas ranks second (Hancock & Katel, 1995).

Failure to develop positive feelings toward diversity can result in isolation, racist feelings, and blaming people for not forsaking their cultural traits and native languages for more "acceptable" behaviors--"acceptable," that is, in the perspective of the one feeling uncomfortable, threatened, or fearful. Other consequences for young adolescents include negative self-identities and lowered expectations for their own achievement and behavior.

A Call for Developmentally Responsive Experiences

Although This We Believe (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 1995) does not specifically mention multicultural education, it does call for middle schools to be developmentally responsive and urges respect for diversity and commitment to the ideals of a democratic society. For example, the document characterizes positive school climates as those in which "students and adults recognize and accept one another's differences; and curiosity, creativity, and diversity are celebrated" (NMSA, 1995, p. 19). Similarly, the authors of Great Transitions: Preparing Adolescents for a New Century (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1996) state that young people "must learn, in our pluralistic society, to live peacefully and respectfully with a wide array of ethnic, religious, and cultural groups" (p. 9) and that "learning to live peacefully while respecting diversity will be a major task for youth in the twenty-first century" (p. 15). Last, Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989) suggests that young adolescents should "be able to understand and appreciate the perspectives of cultures (and languages) different from their own" (p. 15).

Before examining several characteristics and suggesting developmentally responsive multicultural educational experiences, it seems appropriate to offer a definition of multicultural education that is designed to address young adolescents' developmental characteristics. Multicultural education in middle level schools is a deliberate process designed to:

* Teach young adolescents to recognize, accept, and appreciate cultural, ethnic, social class, religious, and gender differences among people

* Instill in young adolescents during their crucial psychosocial and cognitive developmental period a sense of responsibility and a commitment to work toward the democratic ideals of justice, equality, and democracy (Manning, 1994, p. 41).

Early Adolescence: Three Selected Developmental Characteristics

The developmental diversity of young adolescents has been documented (Manning, 1993; NMSA, 1995; Thornburg, 1983), and undoubtedly deserves consideration. At least three characteristics of this developmental period suggest a need for developmentally responsive multicultural educational experiences. Such an assertion does not imply that multicultural educational experiences cannot have positive effects on other areas of development; it only suggests that developmentally responsive multicultural educational experiences during this crucial developmental period can have a powerful effect on how young adolescents perceive and treat others.

Characteristic 1 -- Young Adolescents Form Cultural Identities

Geneva Gay (1994) states that "the emphasis middle school educators place on attending to the personal and developmental needs of young adolescents, and the imperative to help them develop a secure, clarified self-identity are applicable to all students" (p. 149). Unquestioningly, opinions of one's self and one's culture play significant roles in academic achievement, social development, behavior, and one's overall outlook on life. In fact, these opinions of one's self and one's culture that are formed during early adolescence, whether positive or negative, may last a lifetime. Young adolescents who form negative cultural identities based on their gender or culture (or any other difference) will face an uphill battle in regaining a properly formed cultural identity. Perceptions of achievement, socialization, and outlook on life undoubtedly will suffer when females think they cannot compete in mathematics and science, for example, or when minority groups feel unwanted or unable to participate in particular academic, athletic, or social activities.

Negative opinions toward others' diversity deserve to be addressed as well. Some opinions, especially those resulting from feeling threatened by or uncomfortable with diversity, might take years to address. Unfortunately, some attitudes may never be significantly changed. Middle school educators, however, can deliberately teach young adolescents facts about others' diversity and help them develop positive attitudes toward other peoples' ethnic and language diversity (Manning & Baruth, 2000). Teaching young adolescents to respect diversity will depend upon educators' commitment to conveying and modeling the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary for positive social interactions.

Culturally Appropriate Responses. This We Believe (NMSA, 1995) maintained that a consuming aspect of young adolescent development is the search for identity, formed in part from the interactions they have with significant peers and adults. Perceptive middle school educators recognize the challenges some young adolescents experience when forming identities (both personal and cultural), and thus they plan programs and materials that promote positive opinions of one's self and one's culture. As part of this effort to promote cultural identities, educators select accurate and objective materials that contribute to attitudinal changes and take a proactive stance toward clarifying myths, distortions, and stereotypes.

Instructional materials should provide factual and objective information and perspectives; if sexism, racism, and ethnic, racial, and gender stereotypes exist in texts and supplementary materials, teachers need to point them out to students. If the teacher does not challenge sexist or racist language, demeaning depictions of young adolescents' cultural groups or genders may affect their cultural identities, as well as their ability to live and work harmoniously with others in the classroom and in society.

Such materials should be written by a variety of authors who incorporate a wide range of perspectives on the contributions of men and women of varied cultural groups to historic events, poetry, artwork, journals, and music (Saravia-Shore & Garcia, 1995). Also, in an effort to promote young adolescents' cultural identities, educators can suggest books about the positive accomplishments of people in specific cultural groups.

Likewise, educators should point out examples of sexist language, such as the use of "man" to mean "human" or the use of the pronoun "he" in referring to both men and women, and then ask how this makes young people in the class feel. To encourage exploration of others' perspectives, the teacher can ask students if they would like to be called "non-Eastern" because they live in the Western Hemisphere--just as many North Americans refer to those who live in the Eastern Hemisphere as "non-Western." The teacher also might ask White and Asian students whether they would prefer to be called "non-Black," in the same manner as some people refer to African Americans as "non-White" (Saravia-Shore & Garcia, 1995).

The use of teacher advisories (James, 1986; Maeroff, 1990) can ensure that all students have at least one significant adult who knows them well (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989). They also appeal to students' preference for belonging to small, interactive groups of perhaps as few as eight or ten people (James, 1986; Maeroff, 1990). Membership in such heterogeneous groups varies according to students' interests and needs. Advisory groups seek to promote students' social emotional, and moral growth, and they also may try to impart an accurate understanding of cultural differences. Teacher advisory programs contribute to the creation of positive cultural identities by providing an atmosphere that fosters warm and caring interpersonal relationships, opportunities for students to share concerns and feelings, and occasions to meet regularly in groups small enough so that advisers may know the learners as individuals. Possible topics to address during the advisory period could include communication among cultures; the recognition of problems that otherwise might have gone unnoticed; understanding racism, discrimination, and their effects; appreciating cultural differences; learning how different cultures value friendships, peers, and allegiance to family expectations; and the dangers associated with stereotypes.

In addition to culturally responsive teacher advisories and exploratory programs, young adolescents also need a positive school climate--one that shows respect for the diversity of young adolescents' learning orientations, socialization habits, and classroom organization and management preferences. In fact, the school climate should consider all aspects of the school day that affect the cultural identities of young adolescents, including curricular content, instructional methods, the professional staff, and the actions and attitudes of students. This We Believe (NMSA, 1995) describes a positive school climate as safe, inviting, and caring; it promotes a sense of community where people place value on human relationships and where people treat others with dignity and respect.

Culturally responsive school environments that accept and respect learners' differences reflect diversity in their curricular content; learning center, library media center, and resource center materials (in terms of history, literature, music, folklore, views of life, and the arts); assembly programs; classroom, hallway, and entrance decorations; cafeteria menus; counseling interactions; extracurricular activities; and school-sponsored dances and other school activities (Banks, 1987).

Characteristic 2 -- Young Adolescents Form Close Friends, Social Networks, and Opinions of Others' Similarities and Differences

Anyone acquainted with 10- to 15-year-olds, or with the research on young adolescents' friendships and social networks, knows that this age group places a high priority on forming friendships. While cultural and gender differences deserve consideration when considering young adolescents' friendships (Manning, 1993), 10- to 15-year-olds constantly seek friendships; make decisions concerning who they will befriend; and discard friendships, often whimsically. Research suggests that gender plays a role in young adolescent friendships; that is, both genders form like-gender friendships and then later form cross-gender friendships (Crockett, Losoff, & Peterson, 1984). Also, young adolescents' selection criteria usually include "like" characteristics and traits; that is, young adolescents tend to befriend those with similar characteristics and behavior patterns (DuBois & Hirsch, 1990). Realistically, segregation by culture appears to be the main criteria for selecting friends in many schools. Such segregation in the middle grades might lead to continued segregation and racial strife in our schools and society.

Young adolescents must develop the understanding that diversity is not a matter of right or wrong; this step can be integral to forming positive feelings about others' unfamiliar customs, languages, and traditions. During the past several decades, a wealth of professional literature has enhanced educators' knowledge of diversity. Middle school educators now have access to factual and objective information written by members of respective cultural groups. Knowledgeable educators now can teach young adolescents about Native Americans (Little Soldier, 1989; Sanders, 1987), African Americans (Hale-Benson, 1986), Asian Americans (Lum, 1986; Sue, 1989), and Hispanic Americans (Fitzpatrick, 1987; Mendoza, 1994). Equally important is the knowledge that these characteristics may or may not hold true with individual young adolescents, and that they may vary both within and among cultures, generations, genders, levels of socioeconomic status, and geographic locations (Manning & Baruth, 2000).

Culturally Appropriate Responses. Although educators should refrain from trying to "make friends" on behalf of young adolescents, they can arrange learning and social situations so that students have opportunities to learn and socialize with a variety of peers. During teacher advisory sessions, for example, educators can encourage students to list five traits they want in a friend, and then have them discuss or write about how these traits can be found in students of both genders and various cultures. The overall goal is to emphasize the necessity of looking beyond stereotypes, myths, and misperceptions when forming opinions of others; and to teach that making friends should not be based on religion, gender, culture, or the color of one's skin.

Middle school educators also can organize class time differently in order to encourage different groups of students to work with each other. Teachers can use cooperative learning to increase the likelihood of inter-ethnic friendships, and to improve the attitudes and behaviors among students of different backgrounds (Manning & Lucking, 1993). Using culture and gender as organizing criteria, the teacher can assign students to groups of four or five and give each student a specific task. Randomly assigning students to groups will not suffice--cooperative learning should have the dual purpose of promoting academic achievement and promoting friendships and other social interaction. Students need to learn to communicate, listen and give feedback, manage conflict, take leadership roles, and contribute in socially acceptable ways. Tasks that include positive interdependence as part of the activity--that is, tasks requiring each person in the group to be dependent on the whole group doing well in order to achieve the goal--are more likely to be successful. Cooperative learning is not simply having students sit next to each other; it involves structuring activities in order to capitalize on young people's needs to communicate, socialize, and work together (Saravia-Shore & Garcia, 1995).

Keep in mind that students who are allowed to form their own cooperative learning groups might continue to segregate by race, gender, or social class. A 6th-grade language arts teacher in one inner-city school allowed her students to group themselves into four groups; the students organized along racial and gender lines. She decided that the next time, she would integrate the groups herself. Collaborative opportunities include cross-cultural groups, peer-tutoring, and cooperative learning, so that young adolescents will have opportunities to work with others who differ. One teacher using cross-cultural learning groups made sure to continually change the groups, so that students from all cultures and both genders would eventually work together.

Organizational strategies such as cooperative learning, cross-cultural groupings, and peer-tutoring will not guarantee that young adolescents will befriend people from another culture or gender. Educators who follow these strategies, however, will have at least provided the opportunity for young adolescents to learn from others, develop a more objective understanding of other students and their differences, and consider making friends from different cultures and both genders.

Characteristic 3 -- Young Adolescents Develop a Sense of Justice, a Perception of Fairness, and an Overall Sense of How People Should Be Treated

Young adolescents are psychologically and cognitively capable of understanding injustices and unfair treatment. Most young adolescents can detect ill treatment of others; some might actually engage in unfair behaviors or fail to take a stand when others do. Just as for adults, a dissonancd often exists between young adolescents' beliefs and actions--for example, some middle school educators have heard students comment about the unfairness of certain situations and events, yet witnessed the same students commit acts of injustice or voice hurtful comments. Regardless of young adolescents' actions and stances toward others, their developmental characteristics allow them to recognize the differences between how people treat one another and how they should be treated. Commitments made during the early adolescence development period to treat others fairly and with a sense of justice, and to take action against wrongful treatment, may last a lifetime.

Negative feelings toward others also can result from feelings of superiority, prejudice, or outright racism. Scrutinizing one's attitudes toward others' diversity deserves consideration, because acquiring knowledge does not necessarily lead to acceptance of, or a positive attitude toward, diversity. Positive attitudes that make a difference in learners' lives include recognizing diversity as a strength rather than a deficit. Other attitudinal aspects include accepting the ethnic perspectives that learners bring to cooperative and collaborative learning experiences, and accepting the responsibility to address racism, prejudice, and discrimination in all its forms.

Culturally Appropriate Responses. Middle school educators can play vital roles in teaching the attitudes and ideals of a democratic society. Teacher advisers can make students aware of "just and fair" behavior and encourage them to commit to the ideals of a democratic society. Role-playing is one means of teaching a sense of justice, a perception of fairness, and an overall sense of fair treatment. Scenarios could be modeled after the following: a 14-year-old African American with "dreads" and baggy clothes is asked by a security guard to leave a department store for no reason; students can play several roles in this scenario, including the teenager, the security guard, and a passerby. Students can explore the reasons why people perceive others on the basis of hairstyles and appearances, and how such perceptions make others feel. Another role-playing situation might be a white 14-year-old girl in a crowded cafeteria who fears sitting at a table with Asian girls (or vice-versa). A third role-playing exercise involves reactions to a group of 15-year-old boys skateboarding in an 82-year-old woman's driveway--the roles may include the differences between the boys' and the elderly woman's perception of skateboarding, and the woman's opinions of the boys' behavior and dress.

Fairness, justice, and treatment of others also can be addressed with a "can of worms" exercise. The teacher pulls from a can a slip of paper containing a controversial statement such as "Boys perform best in mathematics; girls perform best in literature and social studies." Then, students can either form discussion groups (perhaps in teacher advisories) or write in their journals about their reactions to such blanket statements.

Exploratories allow young adolescents to learn more about a specific subject, while not being expected to achieve mastery. The exploratories usually last a semester; some schools, however, change programs every 6 to 8 weeks. The teacher in the exploratory program needs to pique students' interest and motivate them to want to learn more. The teacher also helps students select learning activities and materials, and monitors and assesses their progress. Exploratory topics include: examining a culture's history, traditions, and customs; exploring the challenges facing people of various cultures; studying art, dance, and / or music of a particular culture; studying famous people (scholars, scientists, writers, artists, musicians) from a particular culture; and reviewing past immigration patterns (Manning, 1994). Exploratories may include role-playing, appropriate young adolescent literature, and integrated curricular activities (i.e., exploring a common theme of injustice or celebrating a culture's achievements).

To gain a better perspective of racism, teachers and students can participate in an exercise designed to determine "descriptive" or "racist" quotations. Such exercises have been used effectively with the high school grades and can be adapted to middle school and to various subject areas. Students will discuss whether the statements under discussion are racist or merely descriptive. Examples of statements may include: 1) "An African American family moved into our neighborhood last week"; 2) "The principal interviewed two equally qualified, outstanding candidates--one Asian and one Hispanic. The principal selected the Asian teacher because her school already had several Hispanic teachers but no Asian teachers"; 3) "In 1882, U.S. immigration laws began excluding the Chinese, and the Japanese were excluded in 1908"; and 4) "The best basketball players on our team this year are Black" (Bennett, 1986).

A major emphasis needs to be placed on developmentally responsive multicultural educational experiences that are designed to help young adolescents develop a commitment to work toward justice and fairness for all people, a particularly important goal in an increasingly multicultural society. Young adolescents' commitment in these areas will be evidenced by their behaviors toward and comments about other people.

Summary

Multicultural educational experiences can benefit learners of all developmental periods, yet research suggests that early adolescence is an optimal time to provide developmentally responsive experiences that promote cultural identities, foster close friendships and social networks, and develop perceptions of and commitment to justice and fairness. Elementary school learners might be too young or too dependent on their parents' beliefs, and older adolescents already may have formed undesirable attitudes. During this critical period, effective, developmentally responsive multicultural educational experiences can have profound and long-lasting effects on young adolescents' developing attitudes. As society grows more diverse, middle school educators will be challenged to promote students' positive feelings toward diversity, and to encourage justice and fairness among young adolescents. The rewards will be well worth the effort.

References

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M. Lee Manning is Professor, Department of Educational Curriculum and Instruction, Darden College of Education, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.