Developing relationships with rehabilitation counselors to meet the transition needs of students with disabilities.

The purpose of this article is to outline how school and rehabilitation counselors can work together more effectively to meet the needs of students with disabilities. School and rehabilitation counselors share similar education, goals, and values, and they bring complementary skills and knowledge to their work with students. By increasing their understanding of rehabilitation counseling, school counselors can broaden their professional activities with students with disabilities to enhance their transition into the post-high school world.

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Nearly 6 million children and youth receive special education and related services to meet their unique individual needs (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). In large part, federal legislation has impacted the provision of services for these students with disabilities. In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) was passed with the purpose of supporting states and localities in protecting the rights of, meeting the individual needs of, and improving the outcomes for toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities. By educating children in their neighborhood schools, rather than in separate schools and institutions, and providing more supportive services, it was hoped that the rate of high school graduation, postsecondary school enrollment, and post-school employment would increase (U.S. Department of Education). This landmark legislation brought school counselors, together with other educators, fully into the front lines of serving students with special needs and required counselors to redefine their responsibilities when working with these students, their parents, and their teachers (Scarborough & Deck, 1998). Initially, school counselors fulfilled their obligation by simply referring students with disabilities to professionals trained to serve that population (e.g., special educators, school psychologists, rehabilitation counselors, community agencies) (Lockhart, 2003). However, through the years, professional school counselors have had increasingly important roles when working with students with disabilities (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2004; Lockhart; Milsom, 2002).

More recent amendments to the law extended the education and civil rights of persons with disabilities and changed the name of the law to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 101-476, 1990; the reauthorization P.L. 103-17 in 1997; and the reauthorization P.L. 108-446, 2004) (Bowen & Glenn, 1998; Scarborough & Deck, 1998). With these laws, school counselors, as part of the education team, are held responsible for providing preventative and supportive services for students with disabilities (ASCA, 2004; Bowen & Glenn; Milsom, 2002). The U.S. Department of Education (1996) identified school counseling and guidance as one of the three related services most needed by exceptional children and youth (as cited in Bowen & Glenn).

Beginning in 1980, ASCA acknowledged the important role of school counselors in serving students with disabilities by adopting a number of position statements. The most recent statement (adopted in 1999, revised in 2004) specifies that, when appropriate, school counselors collaborate with others by serving on multidisciplinary teams that identify students who may need assessments to determine special needs, assist with establishing and implementing plans for accommodations and modifications, and work with other student-support specialists in the delivery of services (ASCA, 2004). In addition, school counselors provide responsive services such as individual and group counseling, consult with staff and parents to understand the special needs of students, and make referrals to appropriate specialists within the school system and community (ASCA). School counselors also are called to provide assistance with transitions from grade to grade and school level to school level, to help with postsecondary options, and, in general, to advocate for students with special needs (ASCA).

Although it is expected that school counselors will provide these services, there has been very little research documenting school counselor services to students with disabilities. Given the dearth of research on this subject, it is difficult to know the extent that school counselors are serving students with disabilities (Lockhart, 2003). The research that exists found that school counselors tend to provide some services to students with disabilities consistent with their primary interventions of counseling, consultation, curriculum, and coordination, including individual, group, and career counseling. They also serve on, and provide feedback to, multidisciplinary teams that identify and serve students with disabilities; provide consultation and support to families; schedule needed classes and services; and assist with behavior modification plans (Helms & Katsiyannis, 1992; Milsom, 2002; Studer & Quigney, 2003).

However, in a study of the amount of time over the course of an academic year spent in services provided for students with disabilities, Studer and Quigney (2003) found that for 50% of the activities (e.g., assist in inclusion of students in activities, participate in secondary transitional planning, facilitate communication among staff, consult with professionals outside the school), school counselors spent only 6-15 hours annually in those activities. Consistent with the primary interventions addressed above, school counselors spent more time (11-20 hours per year) in guidance/curricular activities, such as individual (highest-ranking activity) and group counseling, career counseling, assisting in scheduling classes and services, and conferring with administrators. In addition, school counselors spent 11-15 hours annually providing consultation and support to parents and families.

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND TRANSITION SERVICES

With respect to the activities that are not commonly performed, Milsom (2002) found that the lowest percentages of school counselors in her study (40.2% overall and 68% of high school counselors) assisted students with disabilities with transitions to postsecondary life and felt least prepared for this role. It is interesting that this function may be infrequently performed, considering that it is a fundamental task of school counselors to assist students in planning for their future (ASCA, 2005; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000). Although school counselors may be serving students with disabilities in a number of ways, it seems that in the area of transition services, school counselors continue to defer to special education teachers and other service providers (Glenn, 1998). What is important to note is that special educators are responsible for initiating the transition process for students with disabilities and often work closely with rehabilitation counselors to ensure that eligible students receive the services they need to successfully transition to life after K-12 education (Cavin, Alper, Sinclair, & Sitlington, 2001). Indeed, rehabilitation counselors have a long history of working cooperatively with schools to establish practices and programs to facilitate transitions for students with disabilities from school to adult life (Fabian & MacDonald-Wilson, 2005; Hanley-Maxwell, Szymanski, & Owens-Johnson, 1998).

Although the provision for transition services for students with disabilities was introduced in 1983 in a policy paper issued by the U.S. Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (Will, 1983) and advancements have subsequently been made, poor post-school outcomes for these students have been consistently documented (Cavin et al., 2001). For example, a high proportion of students with disabilities drop out of high school, are underrepresented in colleges and universities, have a lower likelihood of being employed after high school, are more likely to be underemployed, receive few fringe benefits, receive below-average pay, and are unable to maintain independent living (Cavin et al.; Fabian & MacDonald-Wilson, 2005).

As stated previously, special education professionals have been developing programs in order to more effectively serve students with disabilities as they transition into high school (Fox, Wandry, Pruitt, & Anderson, 1998). Since the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, the State-Federal Vocational Rehabilitation Program has been a mandated partner in the transition planning processes in special education (Fabian & MacDonald-Wilson, 2005). However, while school counselors are likely to be aware of services provided by special educators, they may be less likely to have knowledge of the expertise, role, and services of rehabilitation counselors. With this knowledge, and because of their expertise in career and personal/social competencies for students, school counselors, rather than deferring to the experts in special education and adult rehabilitation services, can share their expertise and knowledge of their students with these professionals to assist in the critical transition process. Conversely, school counselors can develop an understanding of the opportunities and services that eligible students may have access to and therefore be in a better position to advocate for, and serve, students with disabilities as they transition to life after school.

The purpose of this article is to describe how, by building relationships with rehabilitation counselors, professional school counselors can more effectively and efficiently serve their students with special needs. In the following sections we provide all overview of rehabilitation counselors and services, outline legally mandated transition for students with disabilities, and discuss the implications for school counselors and how they call fulfill the responsibility set forth by ASCA (2004) to be a "key component in assisting [students with special needs] with transitions to post-secondary options" (p. 1).

UNDERSTANDING REHABILITATION COUNSELING

The profession of rehabilitation counseling began as a response to the needs of wounded soldiers returning from World War I. Rehabilitation counselors assisted these injured veterans to identify and obtain appropriate jobs ill the recently industrialized economy. This response to injured soldiers was the first recognition by the federal government that people with disabilities needed specialized assistance from trained professionals in order to find their place in an increasing complex world of work.

Shortly after the Soldiers' Rehabilitation Act was passed in 1920 (P.L. 65-178), a similar law, the Smith-Fess Act (P.L. 66-236), was passed by Congress to assist civilians with disabilities. In different forms, today we still have publicly funded programs to assist both injured veterans and civilians, including students, with disabilities.

Most rehabilitation counselors working with students in schools are operating under the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as amended (currently Title IV of the Workforce Investment Act, P.L. 105-220). These rehabilitation counselors generally work for the state vocational rehabilitation (VR) agency. Every state has a VR agency, and many states also have a separate agency that provides services to students and others with visual disabilities and blindness. State VR agencies are funded under a formula in which the federal government provides approximately 80% of the budget, with the state providing 20% in matching funds. The Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA), an agency that is part of the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services, within the U.S. Department of Education, administers the federal funds.

Rehabilitation counselors working for state VR agencies are state employees, but they must follow the rules, regulations, and mandates required by RSA. There are wide variations in the manner in which states organize and provide rehabilitation services, but all states must follow the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as amended, just as all schools must comply with IDEA.

Although rehabilitation counselors often work more closely with special education teachers than with school counselors, rehabilitation counselors' training and practice are actually much more similar to school counselors' than they are to special educators' training. The Council on Rehabilitation Counseling (CORE) accredits programs in a manner parallel to the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) accreditation of all the other counseling specialties. Today, CORE and CACREP have similar standards and work closely together to accredit programs that contain both rehabilitation and school (or other) counseling programs. Rehabilitation counseling shares most of the basic counseling curricula with school counselors (e.g., counseling theories, helping skills, appraisal), and graduates are expected to have similar skills. Most state agencies, and many community agencies, require (or at least prefer) that rehabilitation counselors graduate from an accredited program and be Certified Rehabilitation Counselors.

While the central focus of rehabilitation counseling has always been on assisting people with disabilities vocationally, rehabilitation counselors also help their clients (generally called consumers) to live as independently as possible and to become integrated into the broader community. The central goal of rehabilitation counseling is to reduce barriers to full inclusion and participation of people with disabilities in all aspects of society.

TRANSITION

Transition is the term used to describe the process by which a student moves from special education (or other programs for students with disabilities) into adult services. Both IDEA and the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, recognize the need to help students transition as seamlessly as possible from school into the adult world, and generally into employment. As indicated above, research has consistently indicated that students with disabilities are more likely to drop out of school, are less likely to attend college, and often have much lower income then their peers without disabilities (Fabian & MacDonald-Wilson, 2005). Effective transition services are designed to equalize opportunity for students with disabilities and improve their employment outcomes (Szymanski & King, 1989; Wehman, Kregel, & Seyfarth, 1985).

Transition services are defined similarly in IDEA and the Vocational Rehabilitation Act. Section 7:37 of the Rehabilitation Act defines transition services as follows:

   A coordinated set of activities for a student,
   designed within an outcome-oriented process,
   that promotes movement from school to post
   school activities, including postsecondary education,
   vocational training, integrated employment
   (including supported employment),
   continuing and adult education, adult services,
   independent living, or community participation.
   The coordinated set of activities shall
   be based upon the individual student's needs,
   taking into account the student's preferences
   and interests, and shall include instruction,
   community experiences, the development of
   employment and other post school adult living
   objectives, and, when appropriate, acquisition
   of daily living skills and functional vocational
   evaluation.

From this description, it is clear that policy-makers envisioned transition services to be individualized, thoughtful, and systematic. In most states, VR counselors begin working with students with disabilities in high school to help coordinate transition services and planning. Occasionally rehabilitation counselors work with students in middle school, but given the large caseloads of most VR counselors, this is the exception. The level and extent of participation by VR counselors vary from state to state, and often between district offices within a state. In many states VR counselors are assigned to specific schools. The VR counselor will meet with the special education staff at the assigned school to identify which students may need transition services. The VR counselor then meets with identified students and reviews their educational records to establish eligibility for services. Ideally, the rehabilitation counselor meets regularly with students found eligible for services. The VR counselor also may meet with students' parents or guardians, and other staff within the assigned schools.

Although the extent of participation may vary depending on the requests and invitations from school personnel, the parents of students, or the preferences of the VR counselor, the rehabilitation counselor may participate in Individualized Education Program meetings, discuss vocational and educational options with special education teachers, and work with other school staff, including, on occasion, school counselors, who are assisting the student. Although the central goal of the transition process is to develop an effective life plan for the student, the often unstated purpose of transition planning is to avoid having the student "fall between the cracks" in the system and graduate (or leave) high school without a plan.

Eligibility for Rehabilitation Services

A key challenge in trying to develop an effective transition program is understanding eligibility requirements for adult services. Many school counselors (and special education teachers) find the eligibility requirements for VR services somewhat confusing and inconsistent with IDEA (Dowdy, 1996). Eligibility for adult services is more restrictive than IDEA, and many students who have received special education services may not be eligible. Some states also have an Order of Selection policy, which means that even some students found to be eligible for VR services will be placed on a wait list and not receive services until all students (and others) with the more severe disabilities are first served. States with an Order of Selection generally develop some method to evaluate the extent to which the person's disability interferes with major life activities and that person's ability to perform activities of daily living. In Order of Selection states, only students with the most significant disabilities may be provided VR services.

School counselors need to maintain contact with their local VR offices to stay current with their state's eligibility requirements, because many students with disabilities may need additional support when they leave high school but may not be able to receive those services from the state VR program. In these situations, the special education faculty or school counselor may need to find alternative transition services for the student. Although VR counselors may not be able to provide direct services in these situations, they may be a useful resource, as they are often aware of other services and programs available to adults in the local community.

All states must follow federal guidelines to determine general eligibility for VR services. As indicated in the Vocational Rehabilitation Act (Sections 20:A & 102:a:1), a person is eligible for services if he or she has "a physical or mental impairment which for that individual constitutes or results in a substantial impediment to employment; requires VR services to prepare for, secure, retain, or regain employment; and can benefit in terms of an employment outcome from vocational rehabilitation." The Rehabilitation Act is very clear that there is a "presumption of benefit," and only in cases in which there is "clear and convincing evidence that such individual is incapable of benefiting in terms of an employment outcome" can VR discontinue services (Section 102:a:2).

It is clear from this description of the eligibility criteria that the pivotal distinction between special education and VR services is the emphasis on employment. While IDEA focuses on the need for all students to receive an appropriate education, the Vocational Rehabilitation Act requires evaluation of the effect of the disability on the student's ability to enter the world of work either directly out of high school or after gaining skills and knowledge through postsecondary education. If the student's disability does not interfere with his or her employment opportunities, then that individual is not eligible for VR services. The rehabilitation counselor generally determines eligibility, and that determination usually is made utilizing the student's existing medical and educational records.

Vocational Rehabilitation Services

Once students are found eligible for VR, the rehabilitation counselor can provide or help obtain many services (Szymanski & King, 1989). The rehabilitation counselor can provide vocational and psychosocial counseling, helping students to determine what they want to do after high school, and assisting them in adjusting to their disability. The rehabilitation counselor can assist in coordinating and helping to fund post-high school training or advanced education and provide support to students while they participate in that program. Helping to coordinate other services that students may need, and connecting students to other adult service providers, is also often managed by the rehabilitation counselor. Rehabilitation counselors also frequently help with transportation, job coaches, and job placement.

Many of the services that the rehabilitation counselor provides begin while the student is still in high school, so active coordination not only with the special education staff but also with the school counselor can significantly enhance the likelihood of the student's post-high school success. The rehabilitation counselor has an in-depth knowledge of the adult service system and can provide many post-high school resources, while the school counselor has a comprehensive understanding of the student and the services available within the school. By working together, rehabilitation and school counselors can avoid duplication of services and activities, and target their interventions more effectively.

SCHOOL COUNSELOR ROLES, INTERVENTIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

As stated previously, school counselors have a mixed track record in serving students with disabilities. Lockhart (2003) noted that a "school counselor's effectiveness in meeting the needs of students with disabilities is often impeded by a lack of sufficient time and training" (p. 358). Nonetheless, school counselors are charged to engage in a variety of roles, to develop programs and conduct interventions to meet the academic, career, and personal/social competencies for all students, as well as to fulfill the numerous expectations from school administration.

School Counselor Roles

The ASCA National Model[R] (2005) recently defined the four overarching roles of school counselors: encompassing the themes of leadership, advocacy, collaboration/teaming, and systemic change. Working as leaders, advocates, and collaborators, school counselors may promote postsecondary success for students with disabilities. These efforts, by all service providers, are paramount if the goals of transition services are to be met (Anderson & Asselin, 1996; Fox et al., 1998). Indeed, "the call for interagency coordination and cooperation in the transition process is a strong thread throughout the transition initiatives and related federal legislation" (deFur & Taymans, 1995, p. 39). The act of coordination and collaboration not only improves the chance of effectively serving students, it also helps avoid overlap of services, thus improving efficiency for all involved. The time spent in collaboration and coordination may actually save time, energy, and resources for the service providers.

School counselors, as individuals who work in various ways with a number of constituents (administrators, teachers, parents, community agencies, students), are in a position to facilitate constructive service coordination. Leadership does not imply taking on all responsibility for services--in fact this is counterproductive--but rather school counselors act as leaders when they use their knowledge of the systems in which they work and their interpersonal skills to facilitate communication and connect services. For example, Dowdy (1996) noted that differences (e.g., professional jargon, primary focus of attention) between special educators and rehabilitation counselors created significant roadblocks to collaboration between these two professionals. Therefore, school counselors may be able to serve an important leadership role in helping these professionals to be able to understand, communicate, and collaborate with each other.

As advocates, school counselors work proactively to not only remove barriers but to increase facilitating conditions for success. Helping to remove systemic barriers to service coordination is one method of advocacy. In addition, school counselors, armed with knowledge about adult transition services for students with disabilities, are in a position to link students to services that will promote postsecondary success. Coordination of referrals for students and parents is a common school counselor task. With knowledge of vocational rehabilitation services, school counselors gain a referral source for students with disabilities and their families. School counselors are not expected to know all of the vocational services available for individuals with disabilities, but rehabilitation counselors do know and may be able to assist individuals with ongoing support, assistive technology, transportation, or funding to support post-high school training.

School counselors are also part of the team that provides direct services to students with disabilities as well as the teachers and parents of the students. Through collaboration efforts, school counselors serve as a member of a team to assist students in increasing their knowledge of their disabilities, postsecondary support services, and their ability to self-advocate, all of which have been linked to greater success in postsecondary transitions (Milsom & Hartley, 2005; Skinner & Lindstrom, 2003). For instance, leaving school with higher levels of basic academic and adaptive competencies (functional reading and math literacy) is associated with higher levels of post-school employment (Eisenman, 2003). Although school counselors do not directly address these issues, they can aid in facilitating career maturity, career decisiveness, and appropriate career aspirations, all of which tend to fall in low ranges for students with disabilities, which has led to underemployment and unemployment of individuals with disabilities (Eisenman). Each of these areas is reflected in the ASCA National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) career competencies (e.g., C:A1.1--develop skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information; C:A1.2--develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests, and motivations; C:B 1.2--identify personal skills, interests, and abilities and relate them to current career choice).

In addition, appropriate social skills and self-advocacy skills are related to postsecondary success (Dowdy, 1996; Eisenman, 2003) and to personal/ social development competencies outlined by the ASCA National Standards (e.g., PS:A1.1--develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person; PS:A2.6--use effective communication skills; PS:B1.5--demonstrate when, where, and how to seek help for solving problems and making decisions; PS:C1.6--identify resource people in the school and community, and know how to seek their help). School counselors can effectively collaborate with other members of the team by providing interventions to students with disabilities in these areas, and by recognizing that others (e.g., vocational rehabilitation counselor) are providing these services and assist in this process.

School Counselor Interventions

As indicated in the ASCA (2004) position statement regarding serving students with disabilities--as well as in the ASCA National Model (2005), which outlines the foundation, delivery system, management system, and accountability, system of school counseling programs--school counselors are expected to address the academic, career, and personal/social competencies of all students through consultation, individual planning, curricula, and counseling interventions. A fundamental intervention of the school counselor in relation to disability services has been through consultation with parents and school personnel. School counselors serve on multidisciplinary teams that identify students with special needs, consult with teachers about appropriate instructional methods (Scarborough & Deck, 1998; Studer & Quigney, 2003), and consult with teachers and parents to understand development and the special needs of students.

Through appropriate participation on multidisciplinary teams, school counselors may provide services to students with disabilities during each stage of the special education referral, evaluation, and implementation process (Milsom, 2004). Indeed, school counselors may help focus the team on the students' holistic needs such as self-esteem, interpersonal skills, and career development, in addition to the common focus on students' academic needs (Milsom). For discussions on school counselors' work on multidisciplinary teams and in other consultation activities, see Lockhart (2003), Milsom, and Scarborough and Deck.

Individual planning services are designed to help students establish academic, career, and personal goals and future plans (ASCA, 2005). School counselors engage in individual, small group, and large group appraisal and advisement in order to assist students in successfully transitioning from school to school, school to work, and school to higher education (ASCA). The focus of these activities is directly parallel to the transition services for individuals with disabilities; therefore, this also may be provided, to students who qualify, by vocational rehabilitation counselors.

According to Milsom (2002) and Studer and Quigney (2003), individual counseling and group counseling are the most commonly performed activities school counselors provide to students with disabilities. As stated previously, school counselors can address career development competencies with students with disabilities. School counseling outcome research supports the effectiveness of career interventions delivered through individual counseling and classroom guidance activities, as well as the specific usefulness of these activities with students with disabilities (Akos, 2004; Sexton, Whiston, Bleuer, & Walz, 1997; Whiston & Sexton, 1998). In addition, outcome research supports group counseling, individual counseling, and classroom guidance activities for the facilitation of personal/social development competencies in students. For instance, small group counseling helps improve student attendance, classroom behaviors, self-esteem, and attitudes toward self and others (Akos; Borders & Drury, 1992), and classroom guidance activities are effective in improving school behavior, attitudes toward school, and coping skills (Akos). In addition, social skills training has been found to produce positive results (Whiston & Sexton).

These results are also generalizable to students with disabilities. For specific ideas that may be incorporated into counseling and curriculum interventions, see Bowen and Glenn (1998); Deck, Scarborough, Sferrazza, and Estill (1999); Durodoye, Combes, and Bryant (2004); Janson (2004); McEachern (2004); Milsom and Hartley (2005); Schwiebert, Sealander, and Bradshaw (1998); and Thompson and Littrell (1998).

Implications for School Counselor Training and Research

Milsom (2002) and Milsom and Akos (2003) found inconsistency across school counselor preparation programs in the area of special education training. It is possible to graduate from a school counselor preparation program with no, or very little, training in issues related to student exceptionalities. Another issue to consider is school counselor awareness, including attitudes, values, and beliefs related to individuals with disabilities (Durodoye et al., 2004). Without adequate training, an understanding of disabilities, or self-awareness, school counselors may believe they lack skills and abilities to adequately serve students with disabilities, which may in turn lead to feelings of inadequacy, helplessness, and embarrassment (Durodoye et al.). Although any or all of these very real issues for school counselors may perpetuate the pattern of deferring the provision of services for students with special needs to special educators, school psychologists, or rehabilitation counselors, school counselors have the opportunity and responsibility to become part of the team of professionals who, together, can provide effective and efficient services.

In order to address these issues, Milsom and Akos (2003) recommended that school counselors-in-training be exposed to disability information through a combination of disability courses (i.e., through special education departments) and program courses (e.g., a school counseling content course). In addition, practical experiences of working with students with disabilities could be intentionally incorporated into practicum and internship courses. Ongoing professional development focused on students with disabilities also is recommended (Scarborough & Deck, 1998). Training or professional development programs that bring together members of each of the disciplines that serve students with disabilities (i.e., regular education teachers, special educators, school counselors, school psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors) also may serve to increase understanding of the unique and overlapping roles each plays in serving students. With this knowledge, collaboration and direct services could potentially be improved.

In order to best serve their students, school counselors have the opportunity to give, as well as gain, through collaborations with rehabilitation counselors. Given some of the above barriers to their provision of services to students with disabilities, school counselors can greatly benefit from a relationship with a professional who has similar professional training, jargon, and philosophy, and who is also an expert in disability, disability laws and services, and assisting individuals with disabilities. Indeed, school counselors may professionally have as much in common with rehabilitation counselors as with anyone who is employed within the school system. For example, given the specific focus of vocational rehabilitation counselors on postsecondary services, their knowledge, skills, and resources may be very helpful to school counselors as they provide individual planning services for students with disabilities, especially for the number of students who have received special education services in school but will not qualify for adult services.

Conversely, rehabilitation counselors, as well as others who serve students with disabilities, also can benefit from having a counseling professional with whom to collaborate within the school. Given the variety of services that school counselors provide to students, parents, teachers, and administration, school counselors are in a good position to be able to assist rehabilitation counselors in understanding the school system, school policies and procedures, the students, their families, and their educational experiences. It is unknown whether vocational rehabilitation counselors are aware of the knowledge, skills, and services of school counselors and of the benefits they could receive through this partnership. School counselors have an opportunity to facilitate this partnership, thus advocating for their students with disabilities and assuring that their students with special needs are receiving all possible services in a coordinated and effective manner. The implication is that each member of the team brings unique and complementary knowledge, skills, and resources that may be combined to address existing needs.

Although research reflecting school counselors' work with students with disabilities has seemed to increase in recent years, there is much that remains unknown, particularly in regard to transition services. For instance, it is unknown whether school counselors are specifically addressing the special issues of students with disabilities in their transitions, if services are provided similarly for all students, or if special education teachers and rehabilitation counselors primarily provide individual planning services for students with disabilities. It is also unclear as to how much vocational rehabilitation counselors know about the roles and services of school counselors and how they experience school counselors' work with students in the transition process. Research that explores the impact of school counselor leadership and collaboration on the transition process of students with disabilities would be helpful in providing directions for practice.

CONCLUSION

A number of school counseling scholars have stated that school counselors have the ability, expertise, and experience to effectively serve students with disabilities (e.g., Fox et al., 1998; Milsom, 2002; Quigney & Studer, 1999; Scarborough & Deck, 1998). However, preliminary research shows that these services are provided inconsistently, vary among programs, and are attenuated by a variety of barriers. Clearly more research needs to be conducted in the area of school counselor services to, and on behalf of, students with disabilities. In the meantime, school counselors have the opportunity to gain a new partner, the vocational rehabilitation counselor, in their work to assist students with disabilities in achieving academic, career, and personal/social competencies and to successfully transition beyond high school. It is important for school counselors to know that they are part of the team that is committed to keeping students with disabilities from "slipping through the cracks."

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Janna L. Scarborough, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Human Development and Learning Department, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN. E-mail: [e-mail]

Dennis D. Gilbride, Ph.D., is a professor with the Counseling and Human Services Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.