Developing Swiss students' learning strategies.

Abstract

Self-regulated learning (SRL) has emerged as an important new construct in the European higher education reform rhetoric. Meanwhile, self-regulated learning represents a key competence being both prerequisite and goal of the educational process. It requires curricular reforms at universities promoting the development of learning strategies of students and even faculty staff. This paper presents a case study of a Swiss university and its paradoxical experiences with a Bologna compliant curriculum emphasizing independent studies as a major element regarding the development of students' learning strategies.

The Implicit Premises of Bologna

European countries are in the process of rethinking their higher education systems due to harmonization efforts initiated by the so-called Bologna process. In 1999, 29 ministers of education committed their education system to the objective of creating "a European space for higher education in order to enhance the employability and mobility of citizens and to increase the international competitiveness of European higher education" (Association of European Universities & EU Rectors' Conference, 1999, p. 4). As a consequence, today in 2006, European higher education institutions are in the middle of reframing their curricula and grading systems. In this process, the developments focus especially on structural change, less on personal development of students and faculty. As per the declaration, the establishment of a system of credits as a proper means of promoting students' mobility includes that students acquire credits in non-higher education contexts, including lifelong learning. This requires self-regulated learning strategies to generate more self-reliance and responsibility for learning.

The declaration implicitly refers to the premises of self-regulated learning. However, no overt rationale, or implementation guidelines are suggested. In this paper, the approach of the University of St. Gallen to link the implementation of the Bologna guidelines with the systematic integration of self-regulated learning is presented and discussed. Paradoxical results of a formative meta-analysis are presented which illustrate tensions between theory and practice of self-regulated learning.

Self-Regulated Learning in Higher Education

The concept of self-regulated learning has developed into a popular educational field of research and practice. Based on different theoretical backgrounds, definitions, demarcations and interpretations are still plentiful and not handled in a consistent way. Viewed as an aptitude, self-regulated learning on the one hand describes a state of a student's intrapersonal requirements that predicts the cognition and motivation that will be involved when she/he addresses future instructional activities. On the other hand, it includes extra- personal factors like the choice of time, location and social contacts (Boekaerts, 2006). Both components of self-regulated learning indicate the learner's influence on her/his own learning goals and process. Beside the student's autonomy and self-determination of learning, the adaptation within learning environments covers the ability to feel and act self-determined even when driven by extrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2004). Regarding students at universities, they cannot be perceived as self-regulated. The degree to which they are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviourally active participants in their own learning process is limited through the dualistic beliefs on knowledge and learning they have developed in school (Schommer, Duell & Barker, 2003). Thus, this paper refers to a learning strategy model which offers students helpful resources for learning essential knowledge and skills for self-regulated learning. It presents the fundamental learning strategies which students need in their academic career.

The model serves as an analytical tool to plan, support and evaluate self-regulated learning taking into account internally, but also externally determined learning conditions (Metzger, 2002). The self-regulated learner feels responsible for his learning, is flexible and strategic within his learning behaviour. Strategic means the learner controls, plans, proceeds and adapts learning consciously. Thereby, learning competence is based on learning strategies which are described as the students' self-generated thoughts, feelings and actions, which are systematically oriented toward attainment of their goals (Schunk & Zimmermann, 2003). Students have to dispose of a rich LS-repertoire (skill, will, self-control), composed of cognitive and supportive strategies, which are transferred to different learning tasks (such as writing a paper, reading and summarizing texts, being successful in written, oral and practical exams) and a variety of teaching and learning environments.

Fostering learning competencies--especially learning strategies--demands the analysis of the current students' learning strategies. The Learning Strategies Inventory by Metzger, Weinstein & Palmer, 1994 enables the measurement of both the product and process of self-regulated learning. Thus, the assessment results offer possibilities to deduce learning goals for instructional scenarios on learning strategies. On the individual level, faculty staff can offer learning counselling to foster students' learning strategies development or offer individually adapted learning tasks. Support on the collective or class level distinguishes between the directive and non-directive approach. The directive approach nominates learning strategies as the main learning subject at class or training, whereas the non-directive approach integrates the support of specific learning strategies within courses. Self-regulated learning is also domain-specific as competent performers in a specific domain rely on different types of prior knowledge related to that domain. As a consequence, different discipline-specific instructional interventions and methods need to be realised within courses to support the development of learning strategies. The next unit provides methods and interventions to support the development of learning strategies within the independent studies at the University of St. Gallen.

Independent Studies at the University

The University of St. Gallen proactively approached the Bologna process and consecutively admitted students according to the new study system in the winter semester 2001/02. By now, all programmes run according to the new system. The university's ambitious goal was not only to recast old structures into a new system but to adjust the mode of teaching and learning to the requirements of the knowledge society. One important step in readjusting the curriculum to new requirements was the reduction of contact hours in favour of additional time for guided self-study time. Students are meant to take increased responsibility for their own learning process and develop important competencies (self-study competencies, team competencies and media competencies) that allow them to become skilful life long learners. Across all levels (Bachelor- and Master), 25% of the disciplinary core curriculum had to be redesigned into independent learning units. The university makes a clear difference between independent studies and self-guided learning such as reading to prepare lectures or exams that is inherent in university education. In independent studies, learning is not primarily understood as a lonely activity, in fact students are expected to take initiative and organize their process in collaboration with peers. In this process, they are supported by faculty with suitable study materials and various formats of tutorials and consultation hours. For this, the university established a learning management system that allows new forms of presentation and interaction with content as well as media for interaction (e.g., discussion boards).

In practice, faculty were relatively free in shaping these independent studies modules according to their preferences and subject-specific requirements. Moreover, the university not only involved students with self-study courses, but implemented a number of additional measures to assist student's development of self-study competencies:

* Kick off-Week: First semester students arrive on campus one week earlier to learn about studying at the university and to become involved for a first time with challenging tasks.

* In the first semester, the students attend a course called "Lernen und Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten (LwA) [1] in which the individual learning process is reflected on. Furthermore, students are taught on how to compose scientific papers.

* The studycube is a multimedia intranet site that has been established in the context of "Learning and Scientific Work" but becomes relevance far beyond the first semester. For once it is an instrument meant to sensitize students for the relevance of their own learning process through audio statements of upper-level students. Additionally, students find a collection of materials on relevant skills such as learning, teamwork, presentation and others.

* Mentoring and Coaching: The University offers students a wide variety of coaching and mentoring programs.

Consequently, there are numerous promoters of this vision. The pedagogical support unit, quality assurance, as well as scientists from different perspectives are actively working toward the evaluation and further development of this vision.

Students' Experiences with Independent Studies

The findings presented here are the results of a meta-analysis of different evaluation efforts by different groups within and outside the institution through a rigorous system of standard student evaluations, complementary qualitative studies based upon data mainly collected through interviews and locus groups, as well as site visits of outside experts. The evaluation reports were organized using the qualitative data analysis software AtlasTI. Various coding procedures as suggested by Strauss & Corbin (1990) and Miles & Huberman (1994) were applied to surface categories and specify properties.

Paradox 1: Goal and Precondition in one go?

This first issue to be elaborated is not necessarily paradoxical in nature but challenging anyway. It is the rhetoric of the university to involve students with independent studies in order to have them acquire relevant skills. To successfully cope with the assignments, however, students need to possess these skills to a certain extent in advance. The university answered this situation with additional support such as the studycube, LwA or the diligent introduction of independent study assignments. In the first year, students only encounter integration model courses, i.e. they meet their tutor regularly for exercise courses. Only later on, the physical presence of a tutor is reduced. In addition, in an introductory course students are trained and sensitized for issues of scientific work and self-organization. Still, students experience independent studies as challenging as the following two interview quotes illustrate [2]:

   But independent studies are really one's own work, for which perhaps
   one has to overcome. And I think, this is the main difference, that
   somehow it needs a much higher driving force in order to actually do
   it.

   But for many it is that if you are not obliged, you postpone for
   later because you know, you have still time.... And in favour of the
   lecturer ... one doesn't do it (laughing).

There is a surprisingly clear fit of these results from the study assessing first year students' learning strategies with the Learning Strategies Inventory (WLI, Metzger, Weinstein & Palmer, 1994). The data collected in fall 2004 demonstrate pattern of weaknesses regarding learning strategies concerning time management and self-control. More research on patterns of procrastination is necessary to better support students with independent studies.

Paradox 2: Freedom or Obligation to Learn?

A seemingly conflicting issue is the students' limited tolerance of too many regulations and restrictions, in line with the traditional understanding of university education, and the demand for more structure to guide their learning process. A typical quote from a focus group is presented next:

JN: Actually we wish, that's what he indicated before, we wish more structure. If we come to buy a course package, we see, this is how the semester will look like. What we do not want is more obligations. That there is written until then you have to do this.

DH: This is what | meant before ... to extend our autonomy somehow.

DH: You should simply know, this way it might work, if you would like. But the decision, if you do it, it is completely with you. But if you do it, then it works with the structure. Then you can really work it straight through. But it is your decision, if you do it.

Students stress the importance of self-determination in their learning (Deci & Ryan, 2004). The quotes illustrate that self-regulated learning means for students to get structure for learning but not be obligated to follow it. The extrinsically motivated learning by students is driven by the summative assessment system forcing students to start studying straight before the exams. Collecting credit points supports this kind of extrinsic motivation which neglects intrinsically supported learning. The grade of self-determination depends on the subjectively perceived amount of control or possibility of choice. Students can be influenced in their perceived amount of control by increasing their experience of autonomy, competence and relatedness. The main question for faculty is how they can design these issues within their learning contexts and conditions. One main issue is to recover the dimension of self-determination (space, time, way, etc) which students demand for their studies.

Paradox 3: Pro Vision--Contra Action

As indicated above, students are quick in expressing critique (often justified) regarding the implementation of independent studies. This limited buy into the independent study format of learning is visible in the aggregated results of the standard student evaluations. In the summary evaluation report, this issue is expressed the following way (Dyllick, 2006, p. 3): "The evaluation of independent in total is still slightly negative (3.17). However, it has significantly improved (3.55) in comparison to the past year." Table l: Summary Student Evaluations of mandatory Bachelor courses (Wintersemester 05/06) (Dyllick, 2006)

See issue website http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/win2006.htm

As with the introduction of ECTS and independent studies, faculty feel more responsible for the self-guided learning activity. They invested a considerable amount of time to adjust to the new system and introduced tutoring systems that rely on the students' timely preparation of coursework. As the students' grades in many cases result from the final exam, students do not comply with the faculty expectations resulting in more frequent frustration on the faculty side. New methods of instruction to support the development of learning strategies demand the reconceptualisation of recent assessment methods to follow constructivist principles and focus on the application of knowledge (Dochy, 2005). As long as instructional goals are not congruent with assessment, the students' assessment culture will not change and still rely on the final exam. Despite the critique, none, not even the most critical students, agreed when asked whether they would abolish independent studies, if possible:

   No, I think I also wouldn't do this. I would change it. No, right,
   actually, I think ... In principle I don't find everything bad.
   Actually, I find it ok (pause) that one composes questions regarding
   the material, answers and so on. Or in educational management
   (specific course) I liked the discussion board.

   I think (hesitating), it has potential, absolutely. However, it
   should be better explained, what the benefit and the meaning of this
   additional learning unit constitutes ... or what the connection is,
   not, this outsourcing of independent studies that in my judgement
   took place. I don't find this recommendable, rather it should be
   integrated into the rest and this in parts is not obvious.

Another question is whether the negative reporting on independent studies could be the result of low quality course designs. Some of it might certainly be the result of poor teaching practice. However, it also seems to be necessary to develop a certain attitude towards a new mode of teaching and learning. Although students generally agree with the university's vision, the epistemological beliefs on teaching and learning still comply with traditional schooling pattern experiences. From this point of view, these sceptical attitudes might be a natural state within a change process.

Conclusions

In this article, experiences with a Bologna-conform curriculum emphasizing self-regulated learning at the University of St. Gallen are presented. Empirical results show that students when entering university education in particularly lack time management as well as self-control strategies. The current model of independent studies provides students additional room for self-regulated learning; however they express ambivalent attitudes, at the same time emphasizing the importance of autonomy and self-determined learning as well as the necessity of "structure" to become a successful learner. In general, specific initiatives to foster self-regulated learning are difficult to implement and are frequently subject to critique although there exists broad consent regarding the university's vision to promote self-regulated learning. To a certain extent, this discrepancy seems to come from disparate epistemological beliefs. Consequently, it needs to be stated that the broad implementation of self-regulated learning in higher education is more complex than anticipated and thus requires an even more systematic approach, more consequent communication, and faculty development.

References

Association of European Universities, & EU Rectors' Conference. (1999). The Bologna Declaration on the European space for higher education: an explanation. Retrieved October 12, 2002, from http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/educ/bologna/bologna.pdf

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Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). An Overview of Self-Determination Theory: An Organismic-Dialectic Perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Determination Research. Rochester: The University of Rochester Press.

Dyllick, T. (2006). Summary on Students' Evaluation of mandatory Bachelor programs. Unpublished report to the faculty of the University of St. Gallen.

Metzger, C. (2002): Zur Bedeutung von Lernstrategien beim Einsatz komplexer Methoden. In: R. Fortmuller, (Hrsg.), Komplexe Methoden--Neue Medien. Tagungsband zum Internationalen Symposium mit Workshops. Festschrift fur Wilfried Schneider. Wien: Manz, S. 75-86.

Metzger, C., Weinstein, C. E. & Palmer, D. R. (1994). WLI-Hochschule, Wie lerne ich? Lernstrategieninventar fur Studentinnen und Studenten. Aarau: Sauerlander.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA; London: Sage.

Schommer-Aikins, M., Duell, O. K., & Barker, S. (2003). Epistemological beliefs across domains using Biglan's classification of academic disciplines. Research in Higher Education, 44(3).

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2003). Self-regulation and learning: Handbook of psychology: Educational Psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 59-78). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.

Endnotes

[1] Translated: Learning and Scientific Work

[2] All quotes are translated from German into English Language.

Jasmina Hasanbegovic is Research Assistant, Franziska Zellweger Moser PhD and Christoph Metzger Prof. Dr. at the Institute for Education Management and Business Education, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland