Designing emotionally sound instruction - an empirical validation of the FEASP-approach.

This article presents an empirical study testing the applicability and consistency of the so-called FEASP-approach dealing with strategies for making instruction more emotionally sound. The FEASP-approach represents a comprehensive and theory-based instructional design model addressing the integration of emotions into classroom instruction. 163 teachers and 53 students were asked about the importance of emotions, and also about the frequency and the effects of FEASP-related emotional strategies during instruction. Results show that there are clear indications that the FEASP-approach is relevant, usable, consistent, and affecting emotions in daily instruction. Finally, further steps in validating the approach are discussed.

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Human emotions are highly correlated with interest, effort, irrelevant thinking, and also, what seems to be most important in daily instruction, with study achievements (Pekrun, 1998). Therefore, how emotions can be influenced during instruction is important for instructional designers. Up to now, the only comprehensive and theory-based instructional design model accommodating several types of different emotions is the FEASP-approach (Astleitner, 1999, 2000). This prescriptive approach assumes that 20 different general instructional strategies can increase positive emotions (i.e., sympathy and pleasure) and can decrease negative emotions (i.e., fear, envy, and anger). The FEASP-approach has not only been formulated for traditional instruction, but also for designing modern instructional technology (Astleitner & Leutner, 2000) (see Figure 1).

In contrast to many approaches which are closely related to "emotional intelligence" or "self science" (e.g., Stone-McCown, Jensen, Freedman, & Rideout, 1998), the FEASP-approach is not dealing with the question of what should be learned in extra courses to develop certain student's emotions. However, it considers how any instruction should be designed to become emotionally sound without any significant additional resources. Despite this important practical advantage and despite the fact, that within the FEASP-approach a theoretically and practically funded mechanism for finding the relevant strategies was used, there are not yet any empirical data about the effectiveness of this approach in daily instruction. There are several open questions which should be answered by research activities in order to find out more about the validity of the FEASP-approach for designing and implementing emotionally sound instruction:

1) Are emotions important for teachers and students in daily instruction? Although, in basic research, the importance of emotions for learning has been demonstrated several times (e.g., Pekrun, 1992), it is an open question, whether instructional designers (e.g., teachers) and students find emotions and their consideration really necessary in daily instruction. For example, instructional designers might think, that emotions should be faded out, because they disturb the focusing on cognitive learning objectives or they are closely related to the emotional development of students what is primarily a duty of other socializing agents, such as family or peers. Students might think, that their emotions are private and that they should not be handled from another person in a public situation within a classroom.

2) What are the most important emotions in instruction from the view of teachers and students? Within theoretical approaches and related research on emotions and instruction, there are numerous types of emotions included (e.g., Jerusalem & Pekrun, 1999). The FEASP-approach postulated that only five special types of emotions should be dealt with (i.e., fear, envy, anger, sympathy, and pleasure). If, within the FEASP-approach, the wrong emotions are implemented, then instructional designers will not use this approach or students are not helped when having emotional problems. It is especially practically relevant that emotions are found which are important for both groups, teachers and students. If such emotions are found, then the ther probability of being used in daily instruction and of being successful in solving emotional problems is at maximum.

3) Are the instructional strategies proposed within the FEASP-approach really related to the corresponding emotions? The assignment of emotional strategies to emotions was originally based on basic research results and on theories, and not on the experience of instructional designers. If instructional designers do not relate instructional strategies and emotions in a way that is proposed by the FEASP-approach, then the educational practice would overrule the theoretical assumptions. In that case, the FEASP-approach could never be implemented and tested in daily instruction what would stop any meaningful research activities.

4) Are the FEASP-strategies used in daily instruction? Even when teachers stress the importance of emotions during instruction, it is not clear whether they integrate emotional strategies in their instructional activities. Teachers usually act under pressure, because they dispose of limited resources in time, attention, knowledge, etc. Based on this problem, teachers might only concentrate on the most important conditions for successful learning, i.e. instructional strategies influencing cognitive processes of the students. There is some chance that teachers cannot use emotional strategies, because they act under pressure. When these emotional strategies cannot be used, then the FEASP-approach does not make any sense in educational practice and relate, d research.

5) Is there a relation between the application of the FEASP-strategies and the experience of certain types of emotions during instruction? If the hurdles connected to questions 1) to 4) are successfully taken, then it is still not sure, whether the FEASP-strategies can affect emotional experiences as proposed by the FEASP-approach. The effectiveness of the FEASP-strategies is an important issue for instructional designers, because in instructional practice only those strategies will be used that significantly help to solve practical problems. 6) In order to be able to properly answer the questions 2) to 5), a scale for measuring FEASP-strategies and-emotions has to be developed. It is an open question of what quality in respect to reliability and validity these scales are?

Within this paper, it is tried to answer these six questions based on descriptive statistical analysis of data from teachers' and students' questionnaires.

Method

Participants

The sample included n=163 Austrian school teachers and n=53 Austrian university students. 67 percent of the school teachers were female, 33 percent were males. The school teachers' ages range from 22 to 59 years with an average of 40 years. 34 percent of the teachers worked at primary schools, 18 percent at secondary schools, 25 percent at high schools, and about 6 percent at other schools (e.g., for handicapped students). Teachers were asked to take part in the study when they left school, after public meetings (e.g., teacher-parents-meetings), or during private meetings (e.g., parties) by research assistants. The student sample consisted of 45 females and 8 males with an average age of 25 years. 31 students attended a course in statistics and 22 students a course in instructional systems design at a department of educational research.

Instrumentation

Both, teachers and students had to answer a questionnaire including the following issues:

General importance of emotions during instruction. Teachers and students were asked to select one of the seven items depicted in Table 1. The items were ranked on a dimension from low ("emotions are not important ...") to high ("emotions are more important than anything else ...") importance.

Different types of emotions. The question "Which students' emotions should teachers consider during instruction?" was presented to teachers. Students were asked about which of their emotions should be coped with by the course instructor. Both, teachers and students were requested to state at least five different types of emotions.

FEASP-strategies. Short descriptions of the FEASP-strategies as depicted in Table 3 were used in teachers' and students' questionnaires. Teachers were also asked to estimate the importance of the FEASP-strategies for their daily instruction ("I use the strategy often, seldom, or never"). Students were asked, how often the FEASP-strategies were used in the course they were attending within the last two weeks (with the answer alternatives "never", "1-3 times", "4-6 times", "7-10 times", or "more than 10 times"). The number of items and the reliability coefficients (Consistency, Cronbach's Alpha) of the different sub-scales are shown in Table 4.

FEASP-emotions. Students had to state how often ("never", "1-5 times", "6-10 times", "more than 10 times") they experienced the five FEASP-emotions (fear, envy, anger, sympathy, and pleasure) during the course they were attending for the last two weeks. Each of the FEASP-emotions was measured with 8 items which were formulated by the author of the study considering the definitions of the emotions elaborated within the FEASP-approach (Astleitner, 2000). The reliability coefficients are shown in Table 4. Fear was measured with items such as "I had fear of failure" or "I was physically and mentally tensed up". Envy was measured with items such as "I found myself discriminated in comparison with other people" or "I was jealous". For measuring anger, items like "I was in rage about other people" or "I was aggressive" were used. For measuring sympathy, statements like "I experienced team spirit" or "I felt responsible for other students" were considered. Pleasure was measured by presenting statements like "I had fun" or "I was enthusiastic".

Procedures

Teachers were given a questionnaire together with a stamped envelope in the middle of a semester, and were asked to return it within a two weeks period. Also, students were given a questionnaire in the middle of a semester during an ordinary course session. Students had 25 minutes to complete and return the questionnaire to the course instructor.

Results

Emotions and Their General Importance in Instruction

The FEASP-approach is dealing with emotions during instruction. The first question that has to be answered in order to evaluate the practical significance of this approach, is: how important are emotions within the process of instruction in view of teachers and students? If both groups find emotions as not being important within instruction, then the FEASP-approach is superfluous: there is no need for practical implementations and related research. In order to answer this question, teachers and students had to choose one of seven statements about the general important of emotions within instructional settings (see Table 1).

Results indicate that teachers find emotions as very important for instructional settings, because the development of human character depends on them (about 40% of the teachers selected this statement). Nearly as much teachers (38.8 %) selected the statement that emotions are as important as cognitive and motivational processes. Also, students selected these two statements most frequently, but in reverse order: about 60% of the students found emotions in instruction as important as cognition and motivation, and 34% stress the importance of emotions for personality building. Overall, there is a slight tendency that emotions in instruction are more important for teachers than for students in our study (i.e., teachers selected more often the statement indicating the highest importance of emotions (48% vs. 34 %)).

The statements most frequently selected by teachers and students clearly show the high importance of emotional processes in instructional settings what also represents a first evidence for the general importance of the FEASP-approach.

The Importance of Different Types of Emotions Within Instructional Settings

After having some data showing that emotions are important in instruction, the next validation step has to deal with the different types of relevant emotions. Refer' ring to the FEASP-approach, it has to be clarified whether the emotions considered within the FEASP-approach (fear, envy, anger, sympathy, and pleasure) or other emotions are important during instruction.

To find out the importance of different types of emotions, first, teachers were asked with open questions (without any given answer alternatives). The teachers in this study reported 120 emotions that were classified according the FEASP-definitions of emotions (see Table 2). These classifications related the following terms to fear: anxiety, fright, dread, terror, anguish, shyness, aversion, timidity, alarm, excitement, and danger; to envy: jealousy, sense of justice, gloating, and rivalry; to anger: aggression, rage, hate, temper, fury, frustration, wrath, annoyance, violence, pressure, disappointment, trouble, and quarrel; to sympathy: love, affection, friendship, respect, caring for somebody, acceptance, empathy, group feeling, loneliness, sense of responsibility, trust, and helpfulness; and to pleasure: happiness, joy, gladness, humor, and fun. All other terms stated by the teachers were classified as "other emotions or related terms".

Of course, this classification must critically be discussed. Some of the terms are not emotions, but they were seen as emotions by the teachers, so they were treated as emotions. Some of the terms can be related to other types of emotions, but there is an acceptable re-classification-reliability coefficient (i.e., 85 percent of the different terms were classified identically in a second reclassification).

Using the FEASP-definitions, most of the mentioned emotions by teachers were related to anger, then fear, sympathy, envy, and pleasure (i.e., 86.7% of all nominations). Only 13.3% of the stated emotions were not related to emotions included within the FEASP-approach.

These definitions and related classifications were also used to classify the emotions stated by students (see right part of Table 2). Multiple nominations were possible, so percentages of nominations do not add to 100 %. Students nominated fear and pleasure as the most important types of emotions in instruction: More than 40% of the students in our study stated these two emotions. In opposite to the data from the teachers, also the emotions and related terms not contained within the FEASP-approach were analyzed in detail. Results show that students nominated motivation, self-confidence, stress, cognitive variables, and sorrow as most important although not all of these terms are related to emotions from a research-based point of view.

In relation to the FEASP-approach, it has to be stated, that the emotions used within this approach of instructional design, are very important in view of teachers and students. Results also show that teachers and students differ in their importance nominations, especially in the case of the pleasure emotion. Also, self-confidence, stress, and sorrow seemed to represent emotion-related aspects that are important, but not considered within the FEASP-approach. Sorrow was excluded within the FEASP-approach (see Astleitner, 2000), because it is closely related to depression what cannot be handled within instructional practice, but only from psychotherapy. Self-confidence is a variable that is more closely related to motivation and motivational design of instruction and not to emotional design of instruction (see the confidence-parameter in Keller's (1999) ARCS-model). Stress represents a mixture of cognitive, motivational, and emotional aspects which can only be handled by multi-dimensional instructional design approaches. There is a tremendous amount of literature of stress and stress management in instruction what makes stress an important issue. However, referring to the FEASP-approach, stress is a highly general concept which does not cover a wide range of emotions or emotion-related aspects, and which makes it difficult to connect basic research or applied research and related prescriptions for instructional practice.

The Relation of FEASP-Strategies to FEASP-Emotions

When emotions and especially the emotions included in the FEASP-approach are important in instruction, then the next open question is, whether the FEASP-strategies are related to the postulated FEASP-emotions.

To answer this question, teachers were asked to assign one of the 5 types of FEASP-emotions to the 20 FEASP-strategies. Figure 2 shows within a web-diagram the results of this assignment.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

The web-diagram is divided into 5 differently colored parts representing the 5 different emotions. For each strategy (F1 to P4), the highest percentage of assigned emotions are shown. For example, when looking the vertical line from F1 to the center of the web, an area is crossing this line after 3 units. Each unit represents 10% of the teachers' assignments ranging from 80% on the edge of the web to 0% at the center of the web. For strategy F1, this means, that about 43% of teachers assigned the fear-emotion. For F2, about 60% of teachers assigned the fear-emotion. For F3, the highest percentage of assignment was not the fear-emotion, but the pleasure-emotion (for about 40%). For F4, the highest assignment was the sympathy-emotion, and so on.

Overall, the web-diagram shows that, teachers assigned 2 fear-, 3 envy-, 2 anger,-4 sympathy-strategies, and 1 pleasure-strategy to the emotions postulated by the FEASP-approach. In this way, 12 out of 20 strategies were classified as suggested from the FEASP-approach. The web-diagram also shows that the assignment is based on the highest percentage of selection by the teachers. The percentage varies considerably from 75 (for A1) to 24 (for P1) indicating that teachers have no common meaning about which strategy is related to which emotion.

The assignment of FEASP-strategies to FEASP-emotions was originally done within a theory- and research-based procedure, not taking into account aspects from instructional practice. Now, the result presented within this section of the paper shows that 60 percent of the FEASP-strategies are assigned to the postulated FEASP-emotions by teachers. There is a good chance that a higher percentage is accomplished when teachers personally experience how the FEASP-strategies affect the FEASP-emotions. So, this result can be seen as a first significant evidence for the construct validity of the FEASP-approach within instructional settings.

The Frequency of FEASP-Strategies in Daily Instruction

As a next step within the validation attempt concerning the FEASP-approach, it has to be clarified whether the FEASP-strategies are really used within daily instruction. The FEASP-strategies and the whole FEASP-approach would not make any sense in instructional practice when all teachers already use them regularly or when no teachers can use them because of their complexity or the resources in time, effort, etc. which they require.

In order to find an answer, teachers and students within this study were asked, whether they used or experienced the FEASP-strategies within instructional settings.

Within Table 3, the percentage of teachers and students frequently using and experiencing the FEASP-strategies are depicted. Results show that about 21% to 92% of the teachers in this study used different FEASP-strategies often in daily instruction. The students of this study, which are not related to the teachers in any way, also experienced the application of the FEASP-approaches, but at a much lower level (with percentages ranging from about 2% to 73%). Of course, the answers of teachers and students cannot be compared directly, because both groups are differing in the type of education and in answer alternatives. But, in respect to the validation attempt of the FEASP-approach, it has to be stated, that the FEASP-strategies can be and are used within daily instruction. So, the FEASP'-strategies are useable for educational practice and show therefore an acceptable ecological validity.

The Correlation Between FEASP-Strategies and FEASP-Emotions

When the FEASP-strategies are used in daily instruction, then the next question is, whether they can affect certain types of emotions during instruction or not. To answer this question, the students in our study were asked how often FEASP-strategies were used during their instruction and how intense they experienced the FEASP-emotions. Table 4 shows the reliability coefficients (Consistency, Cronbach's Alpha) and the number of items for each emotion- and each strategy-subscale.

The reliability coefficients range from 0.65 (measuring the application of fear-related strategies) to 0.89 (measuring the pleasure emotion) indicating acceptable reliability of the different FEASP-measurements.

The final row of Table 4 shows the correlation coefficient (r) and the significance level (p) of the level of experienced emotions and related strategies. There are significant correlations between sympathy- and pleasure-related strategies and corresponding emotions (r=0.60; r=0.47): When teachers often used sympathy- or pleasure-related FEASP-strategies, then the sympathy- and the pleasure-emotions were high, as proposed within the FEASP-approach. The correlations for the fear- and the envy-components are also in a way which is proposed by the FEASP-approach: fear strategies reduce fear and envy strategies reduce envy, but not at a statistically significant level (p=0.190; p=0.090). The correlation between strategies and emotions postulated by the FEASP-approach cannot be found empirically in the case of the anger component. The correlation (r=0.18) means that the more often the FEASP-strategies concerning anger were used, the more often students experienced anger. This relation is not statistically significant (p-0.112), but does clearly not correspondent with the assumptions of the FEASP-approach.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to validate a theoretical instructional design approach within instructional practice for the first time. Teachers and students were asked about the importance, the application frequency, and the relationship between instructional strategies and related emotions during instruction based on the FEASP-approach. Results show that emotions and especially the emotions considered by the FEASP-approach are important and can be used within instructional contexts. There is also some evidence that instructional strategies and emotions can be measured with acceptable reliability and are related in a way proposed by the FEASP-approach in view of teachers and students: Nearly two thirds of the FEASP-strategies are classified according the corresponding emotions and four out of five strategy-emotion relationships are correlated as expected.

Based on these results, it can be suggested that further attempts to implement the FEASP-approach in daily instruction should be undertaken. The specification of these attempts should improve some of the shortcomings of this study (e.g., no experimental control of the FEASP-effects; little potential to generalize the findings due to the low number of subjects and a majority of female subjects; no multi-dimensional comparison of FEASP-effects; no Aptitude-Treatment-Interaction (ATI) analysis; or a need for a more comprehensive attempt to measure the validity of the measurements concerning strategies and emotions). Therefore, as a next step, teachers will be trained in applying the FEASP-approach, or at least, parts of it. Teachers then will have to use and vary the FEASP-strategies systematically within experimental or quasi-experimental controlled settings. FEASP-strategies will be implemented step-by-step, observing especially what will happen with students' emotions when different strategies are combined in daily instruction. Special attention will be given to the anger reducing strategies, because they did not correlate with the related emotions as expected within this study. As a first explanation of this finding, it is assumed that anger reducing strategies increase anger in a first period of time, because they address a lot of unpleasant issues. Based on this explanation, a more long-term observation of emotional processes within the classroom will be undertaken. Finally, an open question remains, how different FEASP-strategies and -emotions are related to learning and students' achievements. Although, there are a lot of open questions to be answered before the FEASP-approach can be recommended for daily instruction, this study clearly supports further research activities focusing on this instructional design model.

Table 1

The General Importance of Emotions Within Instructional Settings

Statements                                      In View of   In View of
                                                 teachers     students
                                                 (N=163)       (N=53)

Emotions are not important in instructional        1.3%         0.0%
settings, parents should deal with them at
home.

Emotions are not important, because there are      0.7%         0.0%
no emotional problems within instructional
settings.

Emotions are sometimes important, especially       3.9%         3.8%
when students are disturbing.

Emotions are important, but I am not               7.2%         1.9%
interested in.

Emotions are as important as cognitive and        38.8%        60.4%
motivational processes.

Emotions are very important, because the          40.1%        34.0%
development of human character depends on
them.

Emotions are more important than anything          7.9%         0.0%
else, because emotions are the most
significant experiences in life.
Table 2

The Importance of Different Types of Emotions Within Instructional
Settings

Types of Emotions     In View of Teachers      In View of Students
and Related Aspects   (from overall n=120   (type stated by percentage
                         [= 100%] open      of n=53 persons, multiple
                          statements)         nominations possible)

Fear                         26.7%                    41.5%
Envy                          5.0%                     3.8%
Anger                        41.7%                    24.5%
Sympathy                     12.5%                    11.3%
Pleasure                      0.8%                    45.3%
Other Emotions               13.3%                     9.4%
  Sorrow                                               9.4%
  Self-confidence                                     34.0%
  Motivation                                          60.4%
  Cognition                                           11.3%
  Stress                                              18.9%
Table 3

The Frequency of FEASP-Strategies Application

Primary     Instructional Strategies            % of n=163 teachers
emotions                                       indicating strategy as
                                               "often used in daily
                                                    instruction"

Fear        F1   Ensure success in learning             92.3
reduction
            F2   Accept mistakes as                     75.2
                 opportunities for learning

            F3   Induce relaxation                      21.8

            F4   Be critical, but sustain a             64.1
                 positive perspective

Envy        E1   Encourage comparison with              59.2
reduction        autobiographical ...

            E2   Install consistent and                 84.8
                 transparent evaluating ...

            E3   Inspire a sense of                     86.1
                 authenticity and openness

            E4   Avoid unequal distributed              75.2
                 privileges among students

Anger       A1   Stimulate the control of               28.9
reduction        anger

            A2   Show multiple views of                 75.8
                 things

            A3   Let anger be expressed in a            35.7
                 constructive way

            A4   Do not show and accept any             88.0
                 form of violence

Sympathy    S1   Intensify relationships                60.1
increase
            S2   Install sensitive interactions         72.8

            S3   Establish cooperative                  78.8
                 learning structures

            S4   Implement peer helping                 37.3
                 programs

Pleasure    P1   Enhance well-being                     62.7
increase
            P2   Establish open learning                36.5
                 opportunities

            P3   Use humor                              84.0

            P4   Install play-like activities           46.5

Primary     Instructional Strategies             % of n=53 students
emotions                                       indicating strategy as
                                               "observed more than 3
                                                times within 14 days
                                               in daily instruction"

Fear        F1   Ensure success in learning             45.3
reduction
            F2   Accept mistakes as                     73.6
                 opportunities for learning

            F3   Induce relaxation                       3.8

            F4   Be critical, but sustain a             60.4
                 positive perspective

Envy        E1   Encourage comparison with              13.2
reduction        autobiographical ...

            E2   Install consistent and                 49.1
                 transparent evaluating ...

            E3   Inspire a sense of                     53.8
                 authenticity and openness

            E4   Avoid unequal distributed              52.0
                 privileges among students

Anger       A1   Stimulate the control of                2.0
reduction        anger

            A2   Show multiple views of                 57.3
                 things

            A3   Let anger be expressed in a             3.8
                 constructive way

            A4   Do not show and accept any             15.2
                 form of violence

Sympathy    S1   Intensify relationships                30.2
increase
            S2   Install sensitive interactions         17.0

            S3   Establish cooperative                  47.2
                 learning structures

            S4   Implement peer helping                 19.2
                 programs

Pleasure    P1   Enhance well-being                     13.5
increase
            P2   Establish open learning                26.0
                 opportunities

            P3   Use humor                              40.8

            P4   Install play-like activities            7.9
Table 4

Reliability Coefficients and Correlations Between FEASP-Strategies
and FEASP-Emotions (47<n<52 Students)

                  Fear      Envy      Anger    Sympathy   Pleasure

 Consistency      0.85      0.69      0.68      0.85       0.89
Emotion-Scale      (8)       (8)       (8)       (8)        (8)
    Items

 Consistency      0.65      0.74      0.67      0.85       0.67
Strategy-Scale     (4)       (4)       (4)       (4)        (4)
    Items

      r          -0.13      -.20      0.18      0.60       0.47
 p (1-tailed)    (0.190)   (0.090)   (0.112)   (0.000)    (0.000)
Figure 1. General instructional strategies of the
FEASP-approach - overview (see Astleitner, 2000, p. 191; Astleitner &
Leutner, 2000, p. 499).

Primary     Instructional Strategies        Examples in
emotions                                    Traditional Instruction

Fear        F1   Ensure success in          Use well-proven
reduction        learning                   motivational and cognitive
                                            instructional strategies

            F2   Accept mistakes as         Let student talk about
                 opportunities for          their failures, their
                 learning                   expectations, the reasons
                                            for errors, etc.

            F3   Induce relaxation          Apply muscle relaxation,
                                            visual imagery, autogenics,
                                            or meditation

            F4   Be critical, but sustain   Train students in critical
                 a positive perspective     thinking, but also point
                                            out the beauty of things

Envy        E1   Encourage comparison       Show students their
reduction        with autobiographical      individual learning history
                 and criterion reference
                 points instead of social
                 standards

            E2   Install consistent and     Inform students in detail
                 transparent evaluating     about guidelines for
                 and grading                grading

            E3   Inspire a sense of         Install "biographic boards"
                 authenticity and           telling others who you are
                 openness

            E4   Avoid unequal distri-      Grant all students or no
                 buted privileges among     student access to private
                 students                   matters

Anger       A1   Stimulate the control of   Show students how to
reduction        anger                      reduce anger through
                                            counting backward

            A2   Show multiple views of     Demonstrate how one
                 things                     problem can be solved
                                            through different
                                            operations

            A3   Let anger be expressed     Do not accept escaping
                 in a constructive way      when interpersonal problem
                                            solving is necessary

            A4   Do not show and accept     Avoid threatening gestures
                 any form of violence

Sympathy    S1   Intensify relationships    Get students to know other
increase                                    students friends and
                                            families

            S2   Install sensitive          Reduce students' sulking
                 interactions               and increase their directly
                                            asking for help

            S3   Establish cooperative      Use group investigations
                 learning structures        for cooperation

            S4   Implement peer helping     Let students "adopt"
                 programs                   children in need

Pleasure    P1   Enhance well-being         Illustrate a probabilistic
increase                                    view of the future

            P2   Establish open learning    Use self-instructional
                 opportunities              learning materials

            P3   Use humor                  Produce funny comics with
                                            students

            P4   Install play-like          Use simulation-based
                 activities                 instructional games

Primary     Instructional Strategies        Examples in
emotions                                    Instructional Technology

Fear        F1   Ensure success in          Cognitive learning design
reduction        learning

            F2   Accept mistakes as         Q & A, success statistics
                 opportunities for
                 learning

            F3   Induce relaxation          Training delivered
                                            through multimedia

            F4   Be critical, but sustain   Cognitive tools (semantic
                 a positive perspective     networking)

Envy        E1   Encourage comparison       Student progress tracking,
reduction        with autobiographical      using target lists
                 and criterion reference
                 points instead of social
                 standards

            E2   Install consistent and     Programmed fact-based
                 transparent evaluating     evaluation and feedback
                 and grading

            E3   Inspire a sense of         Personal information
                 authenticity and           board
                 openness

            E4   Avoid unequal distri-      Rule-based granting of
                 buted privileges among     privileges
                 students

Anger       A1   Stimulate the control of   Anger buttons
reduction        anger

            A2   Show multiple views of     Linked information
                 things

            A3   Let anger be expressed     Anger help option
                 in a constructive way

            A4   Do not show and accept     Nonviolent action:
                 any form of violence       motivational design

Sympathy    S1   Intensify relationships    Synchronous and
increase                                    asynchronous
                                            communication tools

            S2   Install sensitive          On-/Offline trainings for
                 interactions               empathic communication

            S3   Establish cooperative      Collaborative learning
                 learning structures        tools

            S4   Implement peer helping     Social networks on the
                 programs                   Web

Pleasure    P1   Enhance well-being         User-friendly interface
increase                                    design

            P2   Establish open learning    Virtual classrooms
                 opportunities

            P3   Use humor                  Story-/comic-/cartoon-
                                            production systems

            P4   Install play-like          Instructional computer
                 activities                 games

References

Astleitner, H. (1999). Emotionale Unterrichtsgestaltung [Emotional design of instruction]. Padagogische Rundschau [Educational View], 53, 307-326.

Astleitner, H. (2000). Designing emotionally sound instruction: The FEASP-approach. Instructional Science, 28, 169-198.

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Hermann Astleitner, Department of Educational Research, University of Salzburg,

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Hermann Astleitner, Department of Educational Research, University of Salzburg, Akademiestrasse 26, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria. Email: Hermann. [e-mail]