Depression, creativity, and religion: a pilot study of Christians in the visual arts.

Increased interest in the relationship between creativity and depression has led to popular and professional discussions of the experiences of highly creative persons who suffer from depression or mania. There has also been parallel interest in religion, spirituality, and religious coping in American culture and in professional mental health organizations, such as the American Psychological Association. It is surprising, then, that there has been relatively little attention paid to religious artists who suffer from depression. The purposes of the present study were to gather pilot data on (a) the experiences of religious artists who report symptoms of depression and mania, (b) whether depression and mania contribute in any positive ways to the work of artists, and (c) ways in which religion helps and/or hurts artists' abilities to cope with depression and mania.

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The last few decades have seen increased interest in the relationship between creativity and depression. This recent interest has led to popular and professional discussions of the experiences of highly creative persons who suffer from depression or mania. According to Carreno and Goodnick (1998), the research on the relationship between creativity and mental illness falls into three major categories: (1) biographies of prominent creative persons throughout history, (2) empirical studies of living creative persons, and (3) empirical studies of creativity among the mentally ill or those at risk for mental illness. What follows summarizes some of the more important studies reviewed by Carreno and Goodnick, in additional to several other studies. We then briefly discuss the possible role religious coping may have among religious artists who contend with depression or mania.

CREATIVITY AND MENTAL ILLNESS

Biographies of Prominent Creative Persons

Biographical studies of the relationship between creativity and mental illness include such renowned historical figures as Ludwig von Beethoven and Vincent van Gogh. For example, Jamison (1993) identified a number of historical figures who were believed to suffer from cyclothymia, depression, or bipolar disorder, including poets, such as Blake, Lord Byron, and Shelley; writers, such as Clemens, Greene, and Stevenson; composers, such as Berlioz, Handel, and Rossini; and artists, such as Gauguin, Gericault, and Pollock.

A more ambitious study was completed by Ludwig (1992), who examined biographies of 1,005 individuals in various professions in an attempt to understand this phenomenon. Using criteria from the International Classification of Diseases, 9th Edition (ICD-9) and the Creative Achievement Scale, Ludwig assessed mental illness and creativity respectively, grouping subjects according to their professions. Artists included subjects who identified themselves as fiction writers, poets, actors and musicians. When compared to other professions, artists had higher rates of psychopathology. Additional biographical studies include Schildkraut, Hirshfeld, and Murphy's (1994) study of a small sample of 20th century abstract expressionists, in whom elevated levels of depression were noted. Ellis' (1926) study found greater psychopathology not in those higher in creativity per se, but of those eminent among British politicians, artists, and scientists, where the incidence rates of mental illness are interpreted by some as suggestive of a link between eminence and psychopathology (cf., Walker, Koestner, & Hum, 1995).

Studies of Living Creative Persons

The second major area of research on the putative relationship between creativity and mental illness are studies of living artists. Again, these studies vary significantly in quality. For example, Andreasen (1987) examined 30 writers and 30 control subjects who were matched for age, Bender and education. Structured interviews were used to assess creativity and history and prevalence of mental illness in both subjects and their first-degree relatives. Results included a higher rate of creativity and mental illness, most notably depression and symptoms of bipolar disorder, in writers and their relatives as compared to controls and their relatives.

In a larger study, Jamison (1989) studied the relationship between creativity and mood disorders among 47 British artists and writers, 18 (38%) of whom had been treated for a mood disorder. Subjects reported an increase in manic symptomatology (including increased energy, self-confidence, and speed of mental associations) during periods of creative activity.

Ludwig (1994) examined the prevalence of mental disorders among female writers and their immediate families. Subjects included 59 writers and 59 control subjects. Questionnaires were administered to all subjects to assess for mental illness among subjects and family members. Compared to controls, writers had significantly higher rates of psychopathology, especially depression, mania, and panic attacks. Also, the parents of the writers had higher rates of mental illness than the parents of the controls.

Creativity Among the Mentally Ill or Those At-Risk for Mental Illness

In addition to biographical studies and empirical research on creative and eminent persons still living, researchers study creativity among the mentally ill and those at-risk for mental illness. For example, Richards, Kinney, Daniels, and Linkins (1992) report trends in the direction of significance that those at risk for bipolar disorder show enhanced creativity (t = 1.89, df = 24, p < 0.10, two-tailed, and p < 0.05 if a one-tailed test had been used). Additional research by Richards (1990; Richards, Kinney, Benet, & Merzel, 1988; cf., Schou, 1979) and others (e.g., Akiskal & Akiskal, 1988) support the view that mild to moderate levels of mania are related to creativity (including "everyday creativity" or originality that may not be part of one's professional identity).

To summarize the foregoing, the evidence for the relationship between creativity and mental illness is suggestive but not conclusive. Some argue that it is not even compelling. Lack of rigorous empirical study is certainly a concern. The relationship between creativity and mental health is likely to be complex, with interactions among variables that have gone unstudied thus far. One of those variables that may be of most interest to religious communities is the effect of religious coping on creative persons who contend with depression.

Religious Coping

According to Pargament (1997), people cope with adverse circumstances by (a) evaluating the implications of the adversity, in this case experiences of depression or mania, (b) considering the resources they have to cope with adversity, and (c) orienting themselves in relation to their experiences of adversity. For some religious persons, their religion is their primary orienting system. It helps them marshal resources for managing with life's difficulties and adds something distinctive and significant to the coping process.

According to Gartner's (1996) review, research supports a relationship between religion and positive mental health outcome, decreased delinquency and criminal behavior, increased marital satisfaction, and lower levels of depression. Despite these associations--particularly as they pertain to experiences of depression--it is unfortunate that little attention has been paid to the coping experiences of religious artists who suffer from negative emotions.

The purpose of the present study was to gather pilot data on religious artists. More specifically, the purposes of the present study were to examine (a) the experiences of religious artists who report symptoms of depression and mania, (b) whether depression and mania contribute in any positive ways to the work of artists, and (c) ways in which religion helps and/or hurts artists' abilities to cope with depression and mania.

METHOD

Participants

Fifty-four conference participants completed surveys while attending the biennial meeting of Christians in the Visual Arts (CIVA). CIVA is a professional organization of religious artists, teachers and students. The total attendance at the conference was estimated at 200 participants, each of whom was afforded the opportunity to complete a survey. Participants received no compensation for their participation.

Measures

Respondents completed a survey in which they were asked several questions concerning depression, mania, and religion. Concerning depression, respondents were asked to rate their experience on a Likert-like scale (from 1 to 10) as to the level of depression they experienced in the past 2 weeks, past year, and in their lifetime (1 = Not Depressed, 10 = Very Depressed). Respondents were also asked to identify which symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder they experienced during their depression. The symptoms for these disorders were drawn from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Qualitative data was collected regarding any positive contributions of depression to respondents' work as artists.

Concerning mania, respondents were asked whether they were ever "manic" or experienced "unusually and persistently elevated mood" and to identify symptoms of mania used in the DSM-IV. As with experiences of depression, qualitative data was collected regarding any positive contributions of mania to respondents' work as artists.

Because CIVA is a professional organization for Christian artists, data was also collected about ways in which religion has helped religious artists cope with depression or mania. Respondents were also asked to describe ways in which religion has been a hindrance to religious artists' ability to cope with depression of mania.

Respondents also provided demographic information. This information included gender, age, race, and primary work setting (see Table 1).

RESULTS

Respondents' Experiences of Depression

Respondents reported a mean score of 3.52 (SD = 2.46) on the Likert-Like scale of severity of depression (1-10) in the past two weeks. For the past year, respondents reported a mean score of 6.23 (SD = 2.86). Respondents reported a severity rating of 8.17 (SD = 2.46) for any depression in their lifetime.

The scale on depression was also divided as follows: Respondents who circled 1 or 2 were classified as Not Depressed; those who circled 3, 4, or 5 were classified as Mildly Depressed; those who circled 6, 7, or 8 were classified as Moderately Depressed; and those who circled 9 and 10 were classified as Very Depressed. Results from this measure are presented in Table 2. Among respondents who were classified as Moderately or Very Depressed, nine (16.7%) also reported five or more current symptoms of depression; similarly, rates of depression the year prior to the survey dropped to 37% and lifetime rates to 50% among those who were Moderately or Very Depressed and reported five or more symptoms of depression. In order of prominence, the symptoms of depression were fatigue (51.8% of respondents), diminished interest/pleasure (50.0%), worthlessness/guilt (50.0%), poor concentration (48.1%), too much sleep (27.7%), recurrent thoughts of death (27.7%), inability to sleep (24.0%), and weight loss (11.1%).

Respondents' Experiences of Mania

Nineteen respondents (35.2%) reported experiencing mania ("unusually and persistently elevated mood"), though only 16 (29.6%) also reported experiencing three or more symptoms of mania as described in the DSM-IV. Respondents who identified themselves as having been "manic" and who reported at least three of the seven symptoms of Mania rated the following symptoms in decreasing order of prominence: racing thoughts (27.7% of all respondents), increased talkativeness (25.9%), increased goal directed behavior (25.9%), distractibility (22.2%), decreased need for sleep (18.5%), grandiosity (14.8%), and risk-taking behavior (12.9%).

Positive Contributions of Depression and Mania on the Work of Artists

Of the 27 respondents who were identified as moderately or very depressed (lifetime), 77.7% reported that depression contributed in positive ways to their work as artists. Positive contributions of depression included providing introspection, focus, expression, and passion (see Table 3). Of the 16 respondents who reported having been "manic" and who reported at least three symptoms of mania, 75.0% reported that manic episodes made positive contributions to their work as artists. Positive contributions of mania included increased productivity, ideas, energy, focus, and exhilaration (see Table 4).

How Religion Helps or Hurts Artists' Ability to Cope with Depression and Mania

Results also suggested that there are several ways in which religious artists experience religion as a help and hindrance to coping with depression (see Table 5). Positive contributions of religion included self-reported understanding of God's sovereignty of ownership, control, of authority over his creation (Sturch, 1988), a sense of the love and presence of God, and church support.

Religion was also reported to harm religious artists' ability to cope with depression. Some respondents reported experiencing guilt and a tendency toward denial of negative feelings such as depression. Religion was also reported to be a help and hindrance to artists' ability to cope with mania (see Table 6). Positive contributions of religion included, again, a sense of God's sovereignty or control and authority over creation, balance or control, a sense of God calling one to the work of an artist, and gratitude for the energy that enhances creativity.

In contrast, religion was reported to harm religious artists' ability to cope with mania in certain circumstances. These included experiences of alienation and lack of support from religious communities and feelings of failure and guilt, as well as negative responses to what sounded like religious cliches about God's love and sovereignty.

DISCUSSION

These results are an important addition to our understanding of some religious artists. The present results suggest that rates of depression and mania in respondents are consistent with previous reports of elevated rates of depression in highly creative persons, particularly artists (Andreasen, 1987; Jamison, 1989; 1993). However, the present results may be elevated due to the convenience nature of the sample and ought to be interpreted with caution. These results may not be representative of conference attendees, e.g., respondents may have been interested in completing the survey because of their experiences with depression or mania, whereas those who had not had these experiences chose not to participate. Also, conference attendees may not have been representative of members of CIVA, e.g., they may be higher functioning than those who may not have attended due to experiences of depression, mania, or other mental health concerns. In addition, although the questions were generally derived from the DSM-IV criteria for diagnosing depression and mania, no objective measure was included to confirm respondents' self-report, and the self-report nature of the survey instrument requires some understanding of the symptoms listed. The age and race of participants also limits generalizability, as most respondents where White and nearly half were between ages 51 and 60.

Despite these limitations, there are still important findings from this survey; Particularly interesting are the responses to questions about the positive benefits of depression and mania to the work of artists, religious artists' experience of religion as a resource in coping with depression and mania, and religious artists' experience of religion as a constraint to coping with depression and mania.

Concerning the positive contributions of depression and mania to the work of artists, there is no one statement that captures the experiences of all religious artists. Over three-fourths of those who experienced depression of mania reported benefits to their work as artists. For those who experienced depression, this included seeing the "turning inward" of depression as intensifying their focus and passion, as well as their ability to express deeper feelings through their work. Similarly, most respondents who reported manic episodes reported benefits from mania that include heightened focus and energy that contributes to increased productivity, both in output and in ideas and brainstorming. These results should not be taken to further romanticize notions of mental illness; consistent with other research, it may be that moderate levels of mania or hypomania are seen as advantageous to the creative endeavor, whereas severe experiences of mania function as constraints to well-being (Richards et al., 1992), and some respondents in this pilot study had trouble with frustration and staying focused.

The potential benefits of hypomania raise the possibility that artists as a group may be more likely to romanticize mental illness and therefore self-report it more often. Although the present study does not lend support either way, self-stereotyping is a phenomenon reported among some groups. It is also conceivable that vulnerability to mental illness may be facilitated by a willingness among ingroup members to see themselves as prone to depression or other negative emotional states. In any case, these distinctions are areas for further research and clarification.

These results also suggest that there is a role the church community could play in supporting religious artists who suffer from depression or bipolar disorder. Religious belief and faith seem to provide a resource for coping with these experiences. Coping may involve trusting in God's sovereignty and purposes (or transforming the experience into something meaningful within God's sovereign economy). Church members can offer additional, concrete support to artists by coming alongside them and communicating to them in ways that diminish guilt and shame for suffering from depression. It seems increasingly important to allow those who suffer from depression or bipolar disorder to acknowledge their struggles in a sale community and to free them from the expectation that their experience of healing is a direct reflection of the quality of their faith.

Beyond the community of religious artists is the broader issue of the interplay between creativity and faith in the face of mental health concerns. If creativity were seen along a continuum, many creative people (who are not artists) may be interested in the relationship between creativity, religious coping, and mental health issues.

In terms of future research it will be important to include a larger survey of all members of CIVA or another religious organization and compare that group to non-religious artists. Future research could also add a measure of religiosity or religious orthodoxy, a measure of spiritual well-being, and a measure of creativity, such as the Lifetime Creativity Scale (Kinney, Benet & Merzel, 1988; cf., Hocevar, 1981).

There is also an opportunity for psychologists and church leaders to consider ways to provide support to church members who are artists and who feel alienated or guilty for their experiences of depression or bipolar disorder. Churches and other religious organizations could be surveyed to look at ways religious organizations provide support to artists in their communities. Case examples of successful church support programs could provide additional information for future research.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of respondents.

Characteristic              Category      N   %

Gender                      Male          21  39
                            Female        33  61
Age                         <30           17  31
                            31-40          6  11
                            41-50          7  13
                            51-60         22  41
                            >61            2   4
Race                        Caucasian     50  94
                            Asian          2   4
                            Latino         1   2
Primary Work Setting        Artist        19  35
                            Art teacher    3   6
                            Art student    9  17
                            Designer       5   9
                            Other          5   9
                            No answer     13  24

Table 3.

Has depression contributed in any positive ways to your work as
an artist?

Introspection

"It usually has propelled me to introspection, prayer, and
consequently revelation."

"Gave insight into my own depth and pain."

"Through it I was able to learn about who I am."

"... it made me go deeper within."

Focus

"It gave me more time to focus on my work; it made me go deeper
within."

"I've been so angry that I focused and made a lot of resolved
work for being down."

Expression

"The pathos/melancholy provides a deep well of feeling that can be
directed into the creative process."

Passion

"It made me withdraw and get angry and pensive and produce better art
with more passion ..."

Table 4.

Has mania contributed in any positive ways to your work as an artist?

Productivity

"Got a lot more done, if I was able to stay focused."

"During these phases, I got a lot done."

"When I'm jazzed, I create more."

"I got more done though frustrated."

"I work harder in a sense."

Focus

"Gave me great focus, energy to complete a project."

"I got very focused on creating work and think thoughts about what
I was making and could make and will make."

"Good focus."

"The goal directedness help me produce many great things under
tight deadlines."

Energy

"When I'm 'up,' I am more creative, inventive, energetic, and
passionate about my work."

"Totally exhilarating."

Ideas

"My ideas came to mind and I compose many rough drafts during
these eras."

Table 5.

Has religion helped and/or hurt your ability to cope when you
felt depressed?

Helped

God's Sovereignty/Purpose

"... trust there is more. God has a purpose."

Love/Presence of God

"It has helped me to know God loves me."

"Christ has helped me ... encouraging my spirit that I was
valuable. I was loved ..."

"... I know I was loved by the Creator ..."

"I believed God was with me ..."

"The issue is my faith didn't change--I needed that.

God stayed the same."

Church Support

"My religion tells me that being clinically depressed is
not a sin. My church is very supportive."

Hurt

Guilt

"Often I feel extreme guilt when depressed because I
know ... that I should feel joy."

"Hurt--because I feel guilty that I can't 'fully depend'
on Christ to get me out of it."

"Sometimes hurts in that I feel guilty."

"Hurt when I felt lots of oughtness."

"I often feel like I should have an answer."

Denial

"Hurt because we are taught to cover up negative feelings
because they are so unspiritual."

Table 6.

Has religion helped and/or hurt your ability to cope when you
felt manic?

Helped

God's Sovereignty

"I know that God is in charge of the universe and he
will help me to prepare and work and play and be."

"It helps me because I have a very strong faith and feel
the ability to surrender to God's will."

Balance/Control

"Prayer to God always stabilizes things."

"Gave me balance ..."

"Kept under control."

Calling

"I have often felt God's call to do this work."

Gratitude

"I feel very thankful for this energy/power that seems
to help with creativity."

Hurt

Alienation/Lack of Support

"I feel alienated by the church often, and have a lot of
trouble relating or making friends in the church. So far
it's easier to get along with those outside."

"Other Christians aren't always sure what to do besides
talk and pray."

Guilt

"Hurt--because again I felt like a failure for not giving
it to God."

Cliches

"Scripture sometimes offers a broader perspective but
then it just as often doesn't in itself address depression
at all, and I avoid it as a result; the 'cliches' sound hollow
and unreal, as far as God loving me, has a
plan ... don't worry, etc."

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Schildkraut, J. J., Hirshfeld, A. J., & Murphy, J. M. (1994). Mind and mood in modern art: II. Depressive disorders, spirituality, and early deaths in the abstract expressionist artists of the New York School. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(4), 482-488.

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Sturch, R. L. (1988). Sovereignty of God. In S. B. Ferguson, D. F. Wright, & J. I. Packer (Eds.), New dictionary of theology (pp. 654-656). Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

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YARHOUSE, MARK A. Address: School of Psychology and Counseling, Regent University, CRB 161, 1000 Regent University, Drive, Virginia Beach, VA 23464. Title: Associate Professor of Psychology. Degrees: Psy.D., MA, Wheaton College, BA, Calvin College. Specializations: Applied integraton of the pastoral care literature; integration and theories of psychopathology; human sexuality and sexual identity; ethics.

KREEFT TURCIC, ELIZABETH. Address: School of Psychology and Counseling, Regent University, 1000 Regent University Drive, Virginia Beach, VA 23464. Title: Doctoral Candidate in the Clinical Psychology Program at Regent University. Degrees: M.A., Boston University, BA, Boston College. Specializations: Religious development, integration of psychology and religion, marriage and family therapy, personality disorders, trauma and identity development.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mark A. Yarhouse, Psy.D., School of Psychology and Counseling, Regent University. 1000 Regent University Drive, Virginia Beach, VA 23464. Email: [e-mail]