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Democracy: development and ethnicity/Democratie : developpement et ethnicite.


Let me begin with a brief comment about the history of democracies, their sustainability, and the drivers of their existence. Then I shall comment on some of the questions posed to the panel. I will end with some commentary about the role of social sciences in the development of democracies and the role that government and agencies such as the World Bank play in the process.

For me it seems like yesterday, but for many of you, it is so old you can't even remember it. However, it was early in 1974 that the stunning wave of the new democratic expansion in the world began. It was then that Portugal became a democracy. At that time, there were only forty democracies in the world, and they were mainly in the advanced industrial countries (Diamond 2003). There were a few other democracies scattered around the world, e.g., India, Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (srē läng`kə) [Sinhalese,=resplendent land], formerly Ceylon, ancient Taprobane, officially Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, island republic (2005 est. pop. , Costa Rica, Venezuela --but only a few.

Since that time, democracy has expanded dramatically. By 1992 over half of all the countries in the world were democracies, and by 1995 just under two-thirds of the countries could be considered democracies. However, in the last decade and a half, the number has remained remarkably stable, so that today, as in 1995, only about 120 countries in the world are democratic in nature. During the same period (1974-2007) only fourteen nations became authoritarian, including countries such as Peru, Zambia, Russia, and Pakistan, and during this same period, some of these reverted to democracies, e.g., Turkey, India, Thailand (Freedom House 2003).

For purposes of this paper, I define a democracy as "a system of government in which the people choose their leaders at regular intervals through free, fair, and competitive elections." Certainly this definition can be viewed as a continuum from those which are clearly democratic to those which are lacking in certain elements. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"
put differently
, it is not an "either-or" situation. It is also the case that electoral democracies can exist in countries with significant violations of human rights, massive corruption, and a weak rule of law. As such, this definition is the minimal criteria that I would suggest characterizes a democratic society. A truly, ideal democratic system requires three components:

1. democratic: enabling citizens to choose their rules in free and fair elections and to participate and express themselves in other political processes;

2. liberal: limiting the power of the state to encroach encroach v. to build a structure which is in whole or in part across the property line of another's real property. This may occur due to incorrect surveys, guesses or miscalculations by builders and/or owners when erecting a building.  on the basic rights of the person and affirming civil liberties and minority rights; it is important to note that the treatment of minority groups is a "litmus litmus, organic dye usually used in the laboratory as an indicator of acidity or alkalinity (see acids and bases). Naturally pink in color, it turns blue in alkali solutions and red in acids. " test for the extent to which government meets the criteria of democracy;

3. republican: providing a rule of law and good government through institutions of horizontal accountability that check and balance executive power, while holding all actors, public and private, equal before the law. This issue of accountability is universal. However, "accountability" takes on different meanings as one moves from culture to culture. In a general sense, accountability refers to the idea that individuals, groups, and organizations are responsible for their actions and how these impact upon people within their state and, more recently, people outside the political boundaries of the state. However, the condition of responsibility takes on very different meanings. The question is, to whom are you responsible? These issues need to be clarified, codified cod·i·fy  
tr.v. cod·i·fied, cod·i·fy·ing, cod·i·fies
1. To reduce to a code: codify laws.

2. To arrange or systematize.
, and communicated to all constituents in society so that it is clear to everyone what their responsibility is (Rosenberg 2002).

Democracy is, I would argue, a necessity for societies to survive. Amartya Sen Amartya Kumar Sen CH (Hon) (Bengali: অমর্ত্য কুমার সেন Ômorto Kumar Shen  (2001) showed that people in economic need also need a political voice. However, democracy is not a luxury that can await the arrival of general prosperity. With economic prosperity for all members of the society (not just the elite or the foreign investors), democracy tends to follow. Moreover, the perception and attitude of people with regard to democracy today seems universal, although there are certainly areas in the world that are not supportive of democracies.

Let me begin with Africa. The Afrobarometer, which surveyed twelve countries in Africa, whose people were from widely divergent cultural backgrounds and national income levels, showed that nearly 70% of the population said that democracy is always preferable to authoritarian rule (Bratton and Mattes 2001). They also associated democracy with civil liberties and electoral choice. In Latin America Latin America, the Spanish-speaking, Portuguese-speaking, and French-speaking countries (except Canada) of North America, South America, Central America, and the West Indies. , nearly 60% still believe that democracy is always preferable. In fact, since 9/11, the Afrobarometer indicates that Muslims are as supportive of democracy as non-Muslims. Tesslers' work (2002) shows that Islam appears to have less influence on political attitudes than is frequently suggested. Indeed, he shows that support for democracy is not necessarily lower among those individuals with the strongest Islamic attachments. In places like Kazakhstan and Kyrgystan, Rose (2002) round that there is little difference among religious groups in support for democracy. He found that the most observant Muslims are almost as democratic as those who are non-observant. In short, he found that Muslim and Orthodox, observant and nonobservant non·ob·ser·vance  
n.
Failure or refusal to observe, as a religious custom or holiday.



nonob·ser
, as well as those with no religion, believe that democracy is better than any other form of government. Thus, it is clear that ethnic and religious groups within a society are important supporters of democracy. Their support is needed to develop democratic principles over a long period of time.

However, why has the emergence of democracy stalled over the past decade? Put another way, what drives democracy? One of the more popular ideas is that economic factors bring about a push for democracy. This is true to a certain extent. Increases in national wealth bring about pressures for democratization de·moc·ra·tize  
tr.v. de·moc·ra·tized, de·moc·ra·tiz·ing, de·moc·ra·tiz·es
To make democratic.



de·moc
 only to the extent that they have several other intervening effects, e.g., raising levels of education, changing state-society relations so as to create a complex and diverse middle class that is somewhat independent of the state, and generating a more pluralistic, active, and resourceful civil society. We also find that international actions and pressures are important factors in establishing democracies. The European Union has been the most successful intervener, and insists that all states seeking entry into the European Union have to manifest truly democratic practices and respect for fundamental rights and freedoms. More recently, the Organization of American States Organization of American States (OAS), international organization, created Apr. 30, 1948, at Bogotá, Colombia, by agreement of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti,  adopted the "Santiago Commitment to Democracy" in 1991. Finally, there is a change due to the normative weight given to human rights and to democracy as a human right. Clearly though, these factors have not been present in those countries which are still not democracies (Rose et al. 1998).

Why should international democracy advisors, including governments, pay close attention to national and cultural traditions? Imposing new cultural and political conditions onto existing national and cultural traditions can lead to severe disruption of society. The introduction of coercive culture--and that is what it is--can lead to the persistence of oppression, racialization, prejudice and discrimination, political disenfranchisement dis·en·fran·chise  
tr.v. dis·en·fran·chised, dis·en·fran·chis·ing, dis·en·fran·chis·es
To disfranchise.



dis
, and hostile social environments. Local people thus engage in a struggle to establish places and spaces of meaning and material survival in the new democracy. Democracy advocates forger that the social consequences of the introduction of a new "culture" impacts on the process of collective identity reformation. Of major interest are the "crisis points," and contradictions within a social system that not only facilitate the emergence and development of a collective "we," but also effect major dynamics within and among people in the "displaced" culture. One of the results of the forced introduction of new culture, e.g., democracy, is the resistance by local people and the eventual creation of diasporas around the world (Dufoix 2003).

With the creation of diasporas comes the creation of homelands. Homelands are socially constructed spatial representations embedded in economic, political, and cultural relations and processes (ibid.). They may be neither geographical "facts" nor legally defined political or national territories. Other organizations such as messianic and millenarian mil·le·nar·i·an  
adj.
1. Of or relating to a thousand, especially to a thousand years.

2. Of, relating to, or believing in the doctrine of the millennium.

n.
One who believes the millennium will occur.
 groups may emerge in an attempt to retain or re-establish traditional culture. These transnationalism processes have important implications for democracy in general. In these social movements This is a partial list of social movements.
  • Abahlali baseMjondolo - South African shack dwellers' movement
  • Animal rights movement
  • Anti-consumerism
  • Anti-war movement
  • Anti-globalization movement
  • Brights movement
  • Civil rights movement
, local leaders have organized international or global openings for local actors to shape movements' goals and strategies through extensive networking. Through these networks, they seek to gain support for causes and issues beyond the locale, region, or state within which they reside. As such, transnationalism has fueled an immense international migration and "new diasporas," primarily to urban centres. Two further pertinent elements of transnationalism that are related are the ways in which the migrants' identities are shaped in being incorporated into their new countries and the ways in which they also remain active in the places they left. The transfer of funds (e.g., remittances), ideology, and human capital from the new residence to the homeland are important considerations when looking at the impact of diasporas on the homeland and the development of democracy.

Finally, I want to comment on the role of social scientists (experts) in the drive to democracy. Social scientists are expert professionals hired by the private sector, government, or by organizations such as the World Bank to frame and address community issues in emerging democracies. They play a key role in the construction of who and what "the community" is, its geographical and political scope, its social, cultural and economic character, and its legitimate needs and entitlements. The conclusions of social scientists are invested with the authority of their individual academic and professional credentials. On the face of it, these experts would appear to play a role analogous to that of lawyers within national legal regimes; they are the regimes' specialized interpreters. This leads to a series of questions.

1. What authority or influence is exercised by social scientists within an organizational structure?

2. To what extent, and in what circumstances, do social scientists possess the authority required to assert interpretations and representations that will be carried out in practice?

3. How strong is the interpretive authority of social scientists within their institutions as compared with that of other actors with competing interests?

In reality, these social experts are normally viewed as part of the "public relations public relations, activities and policies used to create public interest in a person, idea, product, institution, or business establishment. By its nature, public relations is devoted to serving particular interests by presenting them to the public in the most " effort of government or the private sector. They are at the periphery of the agencies' concerns: that may have to be addressed, but, for the most part, they should not get in the way of the "real" work. In the end, the role of social experts is generally always lowest in the priorities of activities taking place in development activities. There is a strong tendency to continue with "business as usual" even though the social experts make recommendations to the contrary (Fox 1998). In the end, the capacity of social scientists to insist on action that increases costs or requires delays may be limited both by overt policy and by the "naturar" dispositions of agency personnel active in the decision-making process (Szablowski 2007). Finally, the profession of social scientist in the context of development remains poorly institutionalized and offers little to bolster the interpretive authority of individual practitioners, since social experts are not a professional category with accreditation, compulsory professional standards, or disciplinary self-regulation, and it is certainly not recognized by political figures as legitimate. As such, there is little reason why agencies and governments would take the advice of social experts if it is contrary to their ideological or economic principles.

At the same time, to their credit, agencies such as the World Bank have introduced "social safeguard policies" and social departments in response to concerted outside pressure to legitimize le·git·i·mize  
tr.v. le·git·i·mized, le·git·i·miz·ing, le·git·i·miz·es
To legitimate.



le·git
 and certify social experts. Although these pressures have scored significant successes in establishing or changing formal policies and procedures Policies and Procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization's policies for operation and the procedures necessary to fulfill the policies. They are often initiated because of some external requirement, such as environmental compliance or other governmental  at the Bank, changes in actual practices have been much more elusive. For example, Fox (1998) and Francis and Jacobs (1999) have shown that social specialists have been marginalized in their influence upon actual practice as democracy is being introduced.

What is the role of women and minority groups in citizen-focused projects in democracy building? Central to this issue is "making the invisible visible," bringing the margin to the centre, rendering the trivial important, putting the spotlight on women and minorities as competent actors, understanding women and minority members as subjects in their own right, rather than objects for men or the dominant group (Boix 2003). The acknowledgement that women's and minority groups' needs differ from those of men or the dominant group, and that, consequently, their needs require further attention counters much established neo-liberal development policy and economic theory.

Democracy is not something that one can introduce overnight. It is not as simple as changing the driving patterns from left to right as Sweden did nearly a half-century ago. Even that was not a simple task. Democracy is a state of mind, and it must be surrounded with an infrastructure that supports its basic principles. If there is one thing that the literature has clearly pointed out, it is that there is no one formula for getting to democracy or for structuring it institutionally so that it will work reasonably well (Welzel and Inglehart 2008). Different countries need different sequences, strategies, and structures for democratic change. However, it is also clear that women and minority groups are important constituents that have been overlooked in past attempts to build democracies. Nevertheless, countries moving toward democracy must be given the time and space to assemble in local groups, select representatives to interim councils, and deliberate through those councils to form a broad-based interim government. Minority groups and women will be representative of those councils, and their input and advice must be sought. To ignore their input places the development of democracy at risk.

Let me end by identifying some general principles that are necessary to invoke when democracy is being introduced.

1. What are the benefits to individuals and families? What will democracy provide that the current system cannot or will not?

2. Is there a long-term future for democracy, and what is the sustainability of this new form of government?

3. Does it represent a real change or is it a disguised form of the old system? This refers to current and future generations--the children.

4. The benefits will be widespread and not focused on specific groups. Moreover, the benefits will be pervasive and provide access to a number of social, economic, and political dimensions.

5. Concrete outcomes need to be demonstrated that impact the lives of people. Is the quality of life enhanced in real forms? For example, is the water cleaner? Is the sanitation infrastructure in place? Are foodstuffs foodstuffs nplcomestibles mpl

foodstuffs npldenrées fpl alimentaires

foodstuffs food npl
 available, and are there reasonably cheap clothes? Are people safer? In other words, is the quality of life enhanced?

6. Is stability in life enhanced? Is there a reduction in conflict, a reduction in fear level; has rationality been introduced to replace capricious capricious adv., adj. unpredictable and subject to whim, often used to refer to judges and judicial decisions which do not follow the law, logic or proper trial procedure. A semi-polite way of saying a judge is inconsistent or erratic.  actions by authoritarian leaders?

7. Has there been the introduction of equal dialogue by the constituents of society?

WORKS CITED

Boix, C. 2003. Democracy and Redistribution. New York New York, state, United States
New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of
: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). .

Bratton, M., and R. Mattes. 2001. How People View Democracy: Africans Surprising Universalism Universalism

Belief in the salvation of all souls. Arising as early as the time of Origen and at various points in Christian history, the concept became an organized movement in North America in the mid-18th century.
. Journal of Democracy 12.1: 107-121.

Diamond, L. 2003. Can the Whole World Become Democratic? Democracy, Development, and International Policies. Paper 03-05, Center for the Study of Democracy Founded in late 1989, the Center for the Study of Democracy (CSD) is an interdisciplinary public policy institute dedicated to the values of democracy and market economy. CSD is a non-partisan, independent organization fostering the reform process in Bulgaria through impact on policy and , University of California The University of California has a combined student body of more than 191,000 students, over 1,340,000 living alumni, and a combined systemwide and campus endowment of just over $7.3 billion (8th largest in the United States). , Irvine.

Dufoix, S. 2003. Diasporas. Berkeley: University of California Press "UC Press" redirects here, but this is also an abbreviation for University of Chicago Press

University of California Press, also known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing.
.

Fox, J. 1998. When Does Reform Policy Influence Practice: Lessons from the Bankwide Settlement Review. In The Struggle for Accountability: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grass Roots grass roots
pl.n. (used with a sing. or pl. verb)
1. People or society at a local level rather than at the center of major political activity. Often used with the.

2. The groundwork or source of something.
 Movements, ed. J. Fox and L. Brown, 303-345. Cambridge, MA: MIT MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology  Press.

Francis, P., and S. Jacobs. 1999. Institutionalizing Social Analysis at the World Bank. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 19: 341-357.

Freedom House. 2003. Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1974-2006. New York: Freedom House.

Rose, R. 2002. How Muslims View Democracy: Evidence from Central Asia. Journal of Democracy 13:102-111.

Rose, R., W. Mishler, and C. Haerpfer. 1998. Democracy and Its Alternatives: Understanding Post-Communist Societies. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Rosenberg, S. 2002. The Not So Common Sense: Differences in the Way People Judge Social and Political Life. New Haven New Haven, city (1990 pop. 130,474), New Haven co., S Conn., a port of entry where the Quinnipiac and other small rivers enter Long Island Sound; inc. 1784. Firearms and ammunition, clocks and watches, tools, rubber and paper products, and textiles are among the many : Yale University Yale University, at New Haven, Conn.; coeducational. Chartered as a collegiate school for men in 1701 largely as a result of the efforts of James Pierpont, it opened at Killingworth (now Clinton) in 1702, moved (1707) to Saybrook (now Old Saybrook), and in 1716 was  Press.

Sen, A. 2001. Democracy as a Universal Value. In The Global Divergence of Democracies, ed. L. Diamond and M. Plattner, 12-13. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University, mainly at Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins in 1867 had a group of his associates incorporated as the trustees of a university and a hospital, endowing each with $3.5 million. Daniel C.  Press.

Szablowski, D. 2007. Who Defines Displacement? In Development's Displacement: Ecologies, Economies, and Cultures at Risk, ed. P. Vandergeest, P. Idahasa, and P. Bose, 33-60. Vancouver: UBC Press.

Tessler, M. 2002. Islam and Democracy in the Middle East Proposed reasons for the relative absence of liberal democracy in the Middle East are diverse, from the long history of imperial rule by the Ottoman Empire, Britain and France and the contemporary political and military intervention by the United States, all of which have been blamed for : The Impact of Religious Orientation Noun 1. religious orientation - an attitude toward religion or religious practices
orientation - an integrated set of attitudes and beliefs

agnosticism - a religious orientation of doubt; a denial of ultimate knowledge of the existence of God; "agnosticism
 on Attitudes toward Democracy in Four Arab Countries. Comparative Politics 34: 337-354.

Welzel, C., and R. Inglehart. 2008. Democracy as Human Empowerment: The Role of Ordinary People in the Emergence and Survival of Democracy. Paper 008-03, Center for the Study of Democracy, University of California, Irvine.

JAMES FRIDERES is professor of Sociology, holder of the Chair in Canadian Ethnic Studies, and head, International Indigenous Studies at the University of Calgary. He is also the past editor of Canadian Ethnic Studies/Etudes ethniques au Canada.

Permettez-moi de commencer avec un bref commentaire sur l'histoire des democraties, leur viabilite et ce qui a amene leur existence. A partir de la, j'en viendrai a quelques unes des questions posees a la table ronde n. 1. (Print.) A kind of script in which the heavy strokes are nearly upright, giving the characters when taken together a round look. . Je terminerai avec le role des sciences humaines dans le developpement de la democratie et celui que les gouvernements des agences telles que la Banque mondiale y jouent.

Pour moi, il me semble que c'etait hier, mais pour beaucoup beau·coup   also boo·coo or boo·koo Chiefly Southern U.S.
adj.
Many; much: beaucoup money.

n. pl.
 d'entre vous, c'est si vieux que vous ne pouvez pas vous en souvenir. Pourtant, c'est au debut de 1974 que la vague stupefiante de la nouvelle expansion democratique a commence a deferler sur le monde n. 1. The world; a globe as an ensign of royalty.
Le beau monde
fashionable society. See Beau monde.
Demi monde
See Demimonde.
. Ce fut lorsque le Portugal est devenu une democratie. En ce temps-la, il n'y avait que quarante gouvernements democratiques sur la planete et ils appartenaient le plus souvent a des pays industriels avances (Diamond 2003). Il y en avait peu d'autres, dissemines autour du globe, par exemple, l'Inde, le Sri Lanka, le Costa Rica, le Venezuela--mais vraiment peu.

Depuis ce temps, la democratie a dramatiquement fait tache d'huile. Vers 1992 elle se retrouvait dans plus de la moitie des pays dans le monde, et vers 1995 presque les deux-tiers de la planete peuvent etre consideres comme des nations democratiques. Pour la derniere decade et demie cependant, ce nombre est reste remarquablement stable, si bien qu'aujourd'hui, comme en 1995, on ne compte que 120 gouvernements de cette nature sur la planete. Pendant cette meme periode (1974-2007) seulement 14 nations ont choisi un regime autoritaire, y inclus des pays comme le Perou, la Zambie, la Russie et le Pakistan, dont certaines sont revenues a la democratie, comme la Turquie, l'Inde et la Thailande (Freedom House 2003).

Dans l'optique de cette communication, je definirai la democratie comme <<un systeme de gouvernement dans lequel les gens gens (jĕnz), ancient Roman kinship group. It was the counterpart of what is known in other societies as a patrilineal clan or sib, and the word has been used in social science as a generic term for such groupings.  choisissent leurs dirigeants a des periodes regulieres par le biais d'elections libres, justes et competitives.>> On peut certainement voir cette definition comme un continuum allant des cas qui le sont clairement a ceux auxquels il manque man·qué  
adj.
Unfulfilled or frustrated in the realization of one's ambitions or capabilities: an artist manqué; a writer manqué.
 certains elements. En d'autres termes, ce n'est pas une situation <<ou--ou>>. On peut aussi trouver des elections democratiques dans des pays ou sont perpetrees des violations significatives des droits de la personne, une corruption massive et une regle de droit [French, Justice, right, law.] A term denoting the abstract concept of law or a right.

Droit is as variable a phrase as the English right or the Latin jus. It signifies the entire body of law or a right in terms of a duty or obligation.
 faible. Telle qu'elle est, cette formulation correspond au critere minimum que je suggererai pour definir une societe democratique. En fait, un systeme ideal demanderait veritablement trois composantes, a savoir :

1. une democratique : qui permette aux citoyens de choisir leurs lois pour des elections libres et justes et de participer et s'exprimer lors d'autres entreprises politiques.

2. une liberale : qui limite le pouvoir de l'etat d'empieter sur les droits fondamentaux de la personne et qui affirme les libertes civiles et les droits des minorites; il est important de noter que le traitement des groupes minoritaires et la pierre de touche du niveau auquel un gouvernement respecte les criteres democratiques.

3. une republicaine : qui presente une regle de droit et un bon gouvernement soumis a des institutions de responsabilisation horizontale, lesquels verifient et equilibrent le pouvoir executif, en tenant tous les acteurs, publics et prives, egalement responsables devant la loi. Cette question de responsabilisation est universelle. Mais le mot prend un sens different lorsqu'on passe pas·sé  
adj.
1. No longer current or in fashion; out-of-date.

2. Past the prime; faded or aged.



[French, past participle of passer, to pass, from Old French; see
 d'une culture a une autre. En general, il refere a l'idee que chaque individu, groupe et organisation doit repondre de ses actions et de la maniere dont elles affectent la population de leur etat et, plus recemment, les gens au-dela des frontieres etatiques. Cependant, les conditions de cette responsabilite peuvent etre interpretees tres differemment. La question est de savoir devant qui est-ce qu'on doit rendre compte? Il faut clarifier ces problemes, les codifier cod·i·fy  
tr.v. cod·i·fied, cod·i·fy·ing, cod·i·fies
1. To reduce to a code: codify laws.

2. To arrange or systematize.
 et les communiquer a tous les citoyens d'une societe afin que tous ait une vue claire de leur responsabilite (Rosenberg 2002).

La democratie, je dirai, est necessaire a la survie des societes. Amartya Sen (2001) a montre que les gens economiquement faibles ont aussi besoin d'une voix politique. Mais la democratie n'est pas un luxe luxe  
n.
1. The condition of being elegantly sumptuous.

2. Something luxurious; a luxury.



[French, luxury, from Latin luxus.
 qui peut attendre l'arrivee d'une prosperite generale, meme si elle a tendance a suivre une reussite economique qui touche tous les membres d'une societe (et pas seulement l'elite ou les investisseurs etrangers). En outre ou·tré  
adj.
Highly unconventional; eccentric or bizarre: "outré and affected stage antics" Michael Heaton.
, elle semble prendre un caractere universel dans la perception et l'attitude des gens envers elle, bien que certaines regions du globe ne la soutiennent pas.

Commencons avec l'Afrique. L'Afrobarometre qui a enquete dans douze pays africains dont les populations appartenaient a des cultures et a des niveaux de revenus largement divergents, a montre que pres de 70 pour cent des gens consideraient que la democratie etait toujours preferable a une loi autoritaire (Bratton et Mattes 2001). Ils l'associaient aussi aux libertes civiles et au choix electoral. En Amerique latine, pres de 60 pour cent des personnes interrogees croient aussi que la democratie est preferable. En fait, depuis le onze septembre, l'Afrobarometre indique que les musulmans la supportent autant que les non-musulmans. D'apres les etudes de Tessler (2002), l'islam semble avoir moins d'influence sur les attitudes politiques qu'il ne l'est frequemment suggere. En effet, il montre que le soutien a la democratie n'est pas forcement moindre chez chez  
prep.
At the home of; at or by.



[French, from Old French, from Latin casa, cottage, hut.]

chez
prep

at the home of [French]
 les individus les plus attaches a la religion musulmane. Dans des pays comme le Kazakhstan et le Kirghizistan, Rose (2002) a trouve peu de differences entre les divers groupes religieux sur cette question. C'est a dire que la plupart des musulmans pratiquants sont presque aussi democratiques que les non-pratiquants. En bref, musulmans et orthodoxes, pratiquants ou non, ainsi que ceux qui n'ont aucune religion, tous pensent que c'est la meilleure parmi toutes autres formes de gouvernement. Ainsi, il est clair que les groupes ethniques et religieux au sein d'une societe sont des partisans importants de la democratie. Leur soutien est necessaire au developpement de principes democratiques sur une longue periode.

Cependant, pourquoi l'emergence de la democratie a marque le pas au cours de la derniere decade? Dit autrement, qu'est-ce qui en fait naitre? Une des idees les plus populaires est que ce sont des facteurs economiques qui en sont le moteur. C'est vrai jusqu'a un certain point. L'augmentation de la richesse nationale apporte avec elle des pressions pour une democratisation Noun 1. democratisation - the action of making something democratic
democratization

group action - action taken by a group of people
, mais seulement dans la mesure ou il y a d'autres facteurs qui interviennent aussi, par exemple, l'elevation du niveau de l'education et un changement des relations sociales qui permette de creer une classe moyenne diversifiee ne dependant relativement pas de l'etat et generant une societe civile pluraliste, active et pleine de ressources. Nous trouvons aussi que les actions et la pression internationales jouent un role important dans l'etablissement d'un systeme democratique. L'Union europeenne a ainsi eu du succes quand elle a insiste que tout Etat qui desirait en faire partie devait faire preuve de pratiques reellement democratiques et respecter la liberte et les droits fondamentaux. Plus recemment, l'Organisations des Etats americains a adopte l'<<Engagement de Santiago pour la democratie>> en 1991. Finalement, il y a du changement du fait du poids normatif accorde aux droits de la personne et a la democratie elle-meme, comme en faisant partie. Il est cependant clair que dans ces pays ou elle n'est pas presente, ces facteurs ne le sont pas non plus (Rose et al. 1998).

Pourquoi les conseillers democratiques internationaux, gouvernements inclus, devraient-ils porter attention aux traditions culturelles et nationales? D'imposer de nouvelles conditions culturelles et politiques a ces traditions peut conduire a une severe perturbation perturbation (pŭr'tərbā`shən), in astronomy and physics, small force or other influence that modifies the otherwise simple motion of some object. The term is also used for the effect produced by the perturbation, e.g.  de la societe. L'introduction d'une culture coercitive--et c'est ce que se passe--peut mener a la persistance de l'oppression, de la racialisation, des prejudices et de la discrimination, de la perte de droits politiques et d'un environnement social hostile. La population locale s'engage alors dans une lutte pour reserver des lieux et des espaces qui ont du sens et leur permette de survivre materiellement dans la nouvelle democratie. Les avocats de cette derniere oublient que les consequences sociales de l'introduction d'une nouvelle <<culture>> a un impact sur l'instauration d'une reforme identitaire collective. Ce qui est principalement interessant, ce sont les <<points de crise>> et les contradictions dans un systeme social qui non seulement facilitent l'emergence et le developpement d'un <<nous>> collectif, mais aussi provoquent une dynamique dominante parmi les gens et en eux dans la culture <<supplantee>>. Un des resultats de l'introduction forcee d'un nouvelle culture, comme la democratie, est la resistance de la population locale et la creation eventuelle de diasporas tout autour de la planete (Dufoix 2003).

Avec la creation de diasporas vient celle Celle (tsĕl`ə), city (1994 pop. 73,670), Lower Saxony, N Germany, on the Aller River. Its manufactures include food products, electronic components, chemicals, and textiles. Wax processing and horse breeding are important locally.  de patries. Les patries sont des representations spatiales de constructions sociales gravees dans les relations et les processus economiques, politiques et culturels (ibid.). Elles peuvent n'etre ni des <<faits>> geographiques, ni des territoires politiques ou nationaux legalement definis. D'autres organisations comme les groupes messianiques ou millenaristes peuvent emerger dans un effort de retenir et de retablir la culture traditionnelle. Ces operations transnationales ont d'importantes implications pour la democratie en general. Dans ces mouvements sociaux, des dirigeants locaux ont ouvert la voie a des acteurs de chez eux sur la scene internationale ou mondiale pour donner forme forme (form) pl. formes   [Fr.] form.

forme fruste  (froost) pl. formes frustes   an atypical, especially a mild or incomplete, form, as of a disease.
 aux buts et aux strategies de leurs mouvements par un reseautage extensif. Ils cherchent par ces reseaux a gagner un soutien a des causes et des controverses bien au dela de la localite, la region ou l'Etat ou ils resident. C'est ainsi que le transnationalisme a alimente une immense migration internationale et de <<nouvelles diasporas>> d'abord et avant tout dans les centres urbains. Deux autres elements pertinents du transnationalisme qui sont relies sont les facons dont les identites des migrants se forment en s'incorporant a leur nouveau pays et la maniere de rester en meme temps actifs dans les lieux qu'ils ont quitte. Le transfert de fonds financiers, comme des versements en argent ar·gent  
n.
1. Heraldry The metal silver, represented by the color white.

2. Archaic Silver or something resembling it.
, d'une ideologie et d'un capital humain de leur nouvelle residence vers la patrie La Patrie was a Montreal, Quebec daily newspaper founded by Honoré Beaugrand on February 24, 1879. It became a weekly in 1957 and folded in 1978.

Its political affiliation was originally Liberal, but Beaugrand officially broke with the party in 1891 and the paper
 lointaine constituent des considerations importantes quand on regarde l'impact de la diaspora sur le pays d'origine et le developpement de la democratie.

Finalement, je voudrais faire quelques commentaires sur le role des specialistes en sciences humaines dans la promotion de la democratie. Ces specialistes sont des experts professionnels engages par le secteur prive, les gouvernements ou des organisations comme la Banque mondiale, pour encadrer et aborder les problemes de communautes dans les democraties emergentes. Ils jouent un role cle dans ce qui se fera, a savoir de qui de qui (dequi) (dā kēˑ),
n the sensation experienced by a person undergoing acupuncture treatment when the needle is inserted correctly into an acupuncture point.
 et de quoi <<la communaute>> sera composee dans son etendue geographique et politique, son caractere social, culturel et economique et ses besoins et ses droits legitimes. Les conclusions de ces specialistes en sciences humaines sont investis de l'autorite de leurs references individuelles universitaires et professionnelles. En apparence, il sembleraient qu'ils doivent jouer un role semblable sem·bla·ble  
adj.
1. Having a resemblance; resembling or like: unfamiliar symbols semblable to religious icons.

2. Seeming; apparent.

n.
 a celui des avocats dans des regimes nationaux legaux; ce sont les interpretes specialises du regime. Ceci mene a une serie de questions :

1. Quelle autorite ou influence des specialistes en sciences humaines exercentils dans la structure de l'organisation?

2. Jusqu'a quel point et en quelles circonstances ont-ils l'autorite requise pour defendre des interpretations et des representations que l'on appliquera concretement?

3. Quelle est l'importance donnee don·née  
n.
1. A set of literary or artistic principles or assumptions on which a creative work is based: "He worked outward from the donnée toward the expression of some general theme or idea" 
 a leur autorite interpretative a l'interieur de leurs institutions par comparaison avec celle d'autres acteurs en competition d'interets?

En realite, on regarde normalement les experts en sciences humaines comme faisant partie de l'effort des <<relations publiques>> de gouvernements ou du secteur prive. Ils sont relegues a la marge de ce qui occupe les agences. On peut avoir a s'adresser a eux, mais, la plupart du temps, il ne leur faut pas se mettre en travers du <<veritable>> travail TRAVAIL. The act of child-bearing.
     2. A woman is said to be in her travail from the time the pains of child-bearing commence until her delivery. 5 Pick. 63; 6 Greenl. R. 460.
     3.
. En fro de compte, ils viennent generalement en dernier dans les priorites accordees aux activites reliees aux operations de developpement. La tendance est forte a ce que <<la vie continue comme d'habitude>>, meme si les experts en sciences humaines font des recommandations en sens contraire (Fox 1998). Au fond Au` fond´

1. At bottom; fundamentally; essentially.
, leur capacite a insister sur des actions qui augmentent les couts et demandent des delais se trouve probablement limitee par a la fois une politique generale avouee et par les dispositions <<naturelles>> du personnel de l'agence qui participent activement a relaboration de la prise de decision (Szablowski 2007). Enfin, la profession de specialiste en sciences humaines dans le contexte du developpement reste pauvrement institutionnalisee et n'offre pas grand-chose pour renforcer l'autorite interpretative de ceux qui l'exercent, etant donne qu'ils n'entrent pas dans une categorie professionnelle accreditee, avec des normes obligatoires ou une auto-reglementation de la discipline, ce qui n'est certainement pas reconnu comme legitime par les politiques. Dans cet etat de choses, il n'y a pas beaucoup de raisons pour que les agences et les gouvernements ecoutent les avis des specialistes en sciences humaines s'ils vont a l'oppose de leurs principes ideologiques et economiques.

En meme temps, des agences comme la Banque mondiale ont introduit, a leur credit, des <<politiques de protection sociale>> et des departements de ressources humaines en reponse a des pressions exterieures concertees pour legitimer et certifier des experts en sciences humaines. Bien que ces pressions aient marque des points importants dans la mise en place Mise en place (IPA pronunciation: [miz eñ 'plass]), literally translated from French, means "setting in place." Culinary Institute of America describes the term as "Everything in place".  ou le changement de politiques et procedures formelles a la Banque, faire evoluer les pratiques actuelles se revele etre beaucoup plus difficile a obtenir. Par exemple, Fox (1998) ainsi que Francis et Jacobs (1999) ont montre la marginalisation Noun 1. marginalisation - the social process of becoming or being made marginal (especially as a group within the larger society); "the marginalization of the underclass"; "the marginalization of literature"
marginalization
 de l'influence des specialistes en sciences humaines lorsqu'il s'agit d'agir concretement dans un cas de democratisation.

Quel est le role des femmes et des groupes minoritaires dans les projets visant les citoyens lorsqu'on batit une democratie? Un point central de ce probleme est de <<rendre l'invisible visible>>, en ramenant la marge vers le centre, en donnant de l'importance aux choses triviales, en mettant en lumiere les femmes et les minorites comme des acteurs competents et en comprenant que tous deux sont des sujets de plein droit, plutot que des objets au services des hommes et des groupes dominants (Boix 2003). Reconnaitre que les besoins des femmes et des groupes minoritaires different de ceux des hommes et de la majorite, et que, par consequent, ces besoins demandent plus d'attention, va a l'encontre de la politique neo-liberale bien etablie de developpement et de la theorie economique.

On ne peut pas introduire la democratie en deux temps, trois mouvements. Il n'est pas si simple de changer metaphoriquement le sens de la circulation de gauche a droite en une nuit comme la Suede le fit concretement il y a pres d'un demi-siecle. La democratie, c'est un etat d'esprit qui doit donc s'appuyer sur une infrastructure qui assure ses principes fondamentaux. S'il y a un point que la documentation a clairement mis en avant, c'est qu'il n'existe pas de formule pour la faire naitre ou la structurer sur le plan institutionnel afin qu'elle puisse fonctionner raisonnablement bien. (Welzel et Inglehart 2008). Des pays differents demandent une articulation, des strategies et des structures differentes. Pourtant, il est aussi clair que les femmes et les groupes minoritaires jouent un role important que l'on a laisse de cote dans les efforts passes pour la mettre en place. Quoiqu'il en soit, il faut donner aux pays qui se democratisent du temps et de l'espace pour reunir les divers groupes de la population locale, choisir leurs representants dans des conseils interimaires et deliberer au sein de ces derniers pour former sur une large base un gouvernement lui aussi interimaire. Les groupes minoritaires et les femmes feront partie des representants dans ces conseils, et il faudra aller chercher leur contribution ainsi que leurs conseils.

Permettez-moi de terminer en identifiant quelques principes generaux que l'on se doit d'invoquer quand on amene une democratie dans un pays :

1. Quels en seront les benefices pour les individus et leurs familles? Qu'est ce que la democratie apportera que le systeme actuel ne peut pas ou ne veut pas procurer?

2. La democratie y a-t-elle un futur a long terme, et quelle est la viabilite de cette nouvelle forme de gouvernement?

3. Est-ce que cela represente un veritable changement, ou n'est-ce qu'une reforme deguisee de l'ancien systeme? Ceci en reference aux generations presentes et a venir--les enfants.

4. Les benefices seront largement etendus et ne viseront pas seulement des groupes precis. De plus, ils se feront sentir un peu partout et pourvoiront l'acces a un certain nombre de domaines sociaux, economiques et politiques.

5. Il faudra demontrer des consequences concretes ayant un impact sur la vie de la population. La qualite de la vie s'est-elle amelioree dans la pratique pra·tique  
n.
Clearance granted to a ship to proceed into port after compliance with health regulations or quarantine.



[French, from Old French practique, from Medieval Latin
? Par exemple, y a-t-il un purificateur d'eau? Une infrastructure sanitaire estelle en place? Des denrees alimentaires sont-elles disponibles et y a-t-il des vetements raisonnablement bon marche? Les gens sont-ils plus en securite? Entre d'autres mots, est-ce la qualite de vie est meilleure?

6. Y a-t-il une plus grande stabilite de vie? une reduction des conflits et du niveau de la peur? A-t-on introduit une certaine rationalite pour remplacer les agissements capricieux de dirigeants autoritaires?

7. L'introduction d'un dialogue egalitaire entre les membres constituant cette societe a t-elle eu lieu?

CEUVRES CITEES

Boix, C. 2003. Democracy and Redistribution. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Bratton, M., and R. Mattes. 2001. How People View Democracy: Africans Surprising Universalism. Journal of Democracy 12.1: 107-121.

Diamond, L. 2003. Can the Whole World Become Democmtic? Democracy, Development, and International Policies. Paper 03-05, Center for the Study of Democracy, University of California, Irvine.

Dufoix, S. 2003. Diasporas. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Fox, J. 1998. When Does Reform Policy Influence Practice: Lessons from the Bankwide Settlement Review. In The Struggle for Accountability: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grass Roots Movements, ed. J. Fox and L. Brown, 303-345. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Francis, P., and S. Jacobs. 1999. Institutionalizing Social Analysis at the World Bank. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 19: 341-357.

Freedom House. 2003. Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1974-2006. New York: Freedom House.

Rose, R. 2002. How Muslims View Democracy: Evidence from Central Asia. Journal of Democracy 13: 102-111.

Rose, R., W. Mishler, and C. Haerpfer. 1998. Democracy and Its Alternatives: Understanding Post-Communist Societies. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Rosenberg, S. 2002. The Not So Common Sense: Differences in the Way People Judge Social and Political Life. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Sen, A. 2001. Democracy as a Universal Value. In The Global Divergence of Democracies, ed. L. Diamond and M. Plattner, 12-13. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Szablowski, D. 2007. Who Defines Displacement? In Development's Displacement: Ecologies, Economies, and Cultures at Risk, ed. P. Vandergeest, P. Idahasa, and P. Bose, 33-60. Vancouver: UBC Press.

Tessler, M. 2002. Islam and Democracy in the Middle East: The Impact of Religious Orientation on Attitudes toward Democracy in Four Arab Countries. Comparative Politics 34: 337-354.

Welzel, C., and R. Inglehart. 2008. Dernocracy as Human Empowerment: The Role of Ordinary People in the Emergence and Survival of Democracy. Paper 008-03, Center for the Study of Democracy, University of California, Irvine.

JAMES FRIDERES est professeur de Sociologie. Il occupe la chaire des Etudes ethniques canadiennes et dirige le departement des Etudes autochtones internationales de l'Universite de Calgary. C'est aussi l'ancien editeur de Canadian Ethnic Studies/ Etudes ethniques au Canada.
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Title Annotation:Reports on Two Plenary Sessions at the Nineteenth Biennial Conference of the Canadian Ethnic Studies Association, Winnipeg, September 27-30, 2007/Rapports de deux sessions plenieres a la dix-neuvieme conference bisannuelle de la societe canadienne d'etudes ethniques, Winnipeg, 27-30 septembre 2007
Author:Frideres, James
Publication:Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal
Date:Sep 22, 2007
Words:5989
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