Declines in smokers' understanding of tobacco's hazards between 1986 and 1998: a report from North Georgia.ABSTRACT Background. The prevalence prevalence /prev·a·lence/ (prev´ah-lins) the number of cases of a specific disease present in a given population at a certain time. prev·a·lence n. of smoking in the general US population has declined significantly over the past few decades. Despite this, few studies have examined changes in cigarette attributes perceived per·ceive tr.v. per·ceived, per·ceiv·ing, per·ceives 1. To become aware of directly through any of the senses, especially sight or hearing. 2. To achieve understanding of; apprehend. by less educated, rural, or southern populations. Methods. A survey was administered to individuals in clinic waiting rooms of two small cities in northwest Georgia Northwest Georgia includes the counties of:
Results. Smokers surveyed in 1997-1998 ascribed more positive characteristics and fewer health risks and other negative characteristics to smoking than did smokers surveyed in 1986-1987. However, nonsmokers in 1997-1998 were more likely than nonsmokers in 1986-1987 to consider smoking to be negative and offensive, and ex-smokers in the second survey were more likely than ex-smokers in the first survey to consider smoking to be addictive ad·dic·tive adj. 1. Causing or tending to cause addiction. 2. Characterized by or susceptible to addiction. addictive ( . Conclusions. While substantial successes have been made in improving smoking cessation smoking cessation Public health Temporary or permanent halting of habitual cigarette smoking; withdrawal therapies–eg, hypnosis, psychotherapy, group counseling, exposing smokers to Pts with terminal lung CA and nicotine chewing gum are often ineffective. rates nationally, efforts to further reduce rates by changing smokers' perceptions may require new strategies for some populations. ********** IN THE PAST DECADE, considerable activity has been aimed at changing attitudes toward tobacco. Government and voluntary agencies have tried to inform smokers and potential smokers about cigarettes' hazards
Hazards is an independent, union-friendly magazine based in Sheffield, England, which has won major international awards. , and tobacco companies have spent billions of dollars trying to maintain and build their clients' ranks. The goal for both sides of the tobacco war-- tobacco companies and government--has been to use advertising and policy, respectively, to change the number of smokers. Over the past few decades, both sides have had certain victories. The prevalence of smoking among the general US population has declined from 40% in 1965 to 25% in 1997. (1) This is an important success, though not all subgroups have achieved the same success (eg, lower socioeconomic so·ci·o·ec·o·nom·ic adj. Of or involving both social and economic factors. socioeconomic Adjective of or involving economic and social factors Adj. 1. groups still have higher smoking rates). (1,2) Along with the declines in prevalence that occurred in the last half of the 20th century, some studies have found marked changes in attitudes toward smoking and smokers and in knowledge of the health effects of smoking and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke environmental tobacco smoke (ETS/passive smoke), n the gaseous by-product of burning tobacco products, including but not limited to commercially manufactured cigarettes and cigars; contains toxic elements harmful to the health of adults and children . Data from the California California (kăl'ĭfôr`nyə), most populous state in the United States, located in the Far West; bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and, across the Colorado River, Arizona (E), Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W). Tobacco Surveys from 1990 to 1996 revealed that support for bans on sales and advertisements increased significantly. (3) Knowledge of the health consequences of smoking and environmental tobacco smoke exposure also increased. Interestingly, the increases in knowledge and changes in attitudes occurred for both smokers and nonsmokers in the California survey. National surveys by Gallup Gallup, town (1990 pop. 19,154), alt. 6,515 ft (1,986 m), seat of McKinley co., NW N.Mex., on the Puerco River near the Ariz. line; inc. 1891. It is a rail and trade center in a large mining, timber, and ranching area. (October October: see month. 7, 1999),(4) showed dramatic increases in the knowledge of health effects. In 1954, 41% of respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. agreed that smoking is a cause of lung cancer lung cancer, cancer that originates in the tissues of the lungs. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States in both men and women. Like other cancers, lung cancer occurs after repeated insults to the genetic material of the cell. ; by 1999, this figure had increased to 92%. Support for total bans on smoking also increased, more than doubling from 1987 to 1999 from less than 20% to close to 40%. However, while data are available on the population groups outlined, little is known about changes in cigarette attributes perceived by populations that are less educated, rural, or southern. In this study, we sought to investigate the change in attitudes toward cigarettes over a decade in a small region in northwest Georgia. We hypothesized that a decade of increasing information on the hazards of smoking, and aggressive antitobacco activity, would result in an increasingly antitobacco, prohealth sentiment Sentiment can refer to:
During a criminal trial, a hypothesis is a theory set forth by either the prosecution or the defense for the purpose of explaining the facts in evidence. , we conducted a survey of attitudes toward cigarette smoking. The survey was administered at two family medicine clinics in northwest Georgia in 1986-1987, and again at the same clinics in 1997-1998. METHODS A one-page questionnaire questionnaire, n a series of questions used to gather information. questionnaire, n a form usually filled out by patients that provides data concerning their dental and general health. was first administered in 1986-1987 in a private practitioner's office in Summerville Summerville
Rome, Ital. Roma, city (1991 pop. 2,775,250), capital of Italy and see of the pope, whose residence, Vatican City, is a sovereign state within the city of Rome. , a small city in northwest Georgia. The questionnaire was offered to all patients and other individuals in the clinic waiting rooms; assistance was offered to those unable to complete the questionnaire. No data were collected on completion or refusal rates. We queried demographic information and smoking status and asked respondents to indicate from a list of 40 characteristics those that might be applied to cigarette smoking. Exactly the same questionnaire was administered in the same fashion and at the same clinics in 1997-1998. Of the attributes of smoking listed, some were considered to be positive: fun, attractive, athletic athletic (athlet´ik), adj pertaining to a bodily constitution characterized by a strong, muscular, robust appearance. athletic injuries, n. , positive, clean, elegant, "cool," nerve nerve: see nervous system. calming, uplifting, sexy, classy class·y adj. class·i·er, class·i·est Informal Highly stylish; elegant. class  i·ness n. , smart,
pleasurable pleas·ur·a·ble adj. Agreeable; gratifying. pleas  ur·a·bil , popular, sophisticated, and independent. Negative
characteristics were expensive, "showoff-y," disease-causing,
inconsiderate in·con·sid·er·ate adj. 1. Thoughtless of others; displaying a lack of consideration. 2. Not well considered or carefully thought out; ill-advised. , negative, cancer-causing, smelly smell·y adj. smell·i·er, smell·i·est Informal Having a noticeable, usually unpleasant or offensive odor. smelly Adjective [smellier, smelliest , dumb DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND. A man born deaf, dumb, and blind, is considered an idiot. (q.v.) 1 Bl. Com. 304; F. N. B. 233; 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 2111. DUMB. One who cannot speak; a person who is mute. See Deaf and dumb, Deaf, dumb, and blind; Mute, standing mute. , offensive, addictive, heart-disease-causing, childish child·ish adj. 1. Of, relating to, or suitable for a child or childhood: a high, childish voice; childish nightmares. 2. a. , annoying, unattractive, and irrational ir·ra·tion·al adj. Not rational; marked by a lack of accord with reason or sound judgment. irrational adjective Unreasonable, illogical . Data were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. in SAS (1) (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, www.sas.com) A software company that specializes in data warehousing and decision support software based on the SAS System. Founded in 1976, SAS is one of the world's largest privately held software companies. See SAS System. ; chi-square tests chi-square test: see statistics. (for percentages) and t tests (for means) were used to test for statistical significance of differences over times. Multiple linear regressions Linear regression A statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. were also done to compare the total number of positive and negative characteristics attributed to smoking across samples. The independent variables entered into the regressions were age (in single years), sex, (female = 0, male = 1), education (less than high school graduate = 0, at least high school graduate = 1), and time of data collection (1986-1987 = 0, 1997-1998 = 1). RESULTS Table 1 presents the demographic and smoking status information for the two samples. The earlier sample was younger, less unlikely to be of "other" ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , and less likely to be well educated; the samples did not significantly differ by sex, marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , or church attendance (P < .05 was considered statistically significant). Importantly, there were no significant differences in rates of ever smoking, ever smoking >1 pack per day, current smoking, current heavy smoking, or currently trying to quit To exit the current program. smoking. Most of the significant differences in attitudes about smoking between the 1986-1987 and the 1997-1998 samples were among current smokers (Table 2). Current smokers in 1997-1998 ascribed more positive and fewer negative characteristics to smoking and were specifically more likely to say smoking was fun, uplifting, and independent, and less likely to say it was dumb, show-off-y, generally disease-causing, or specifically a cause of cancer or heart disease. Current smokers in 1997-1998 were, however, slightly less likely to say it was positive, clean, or harmless The term harmless may be taken in several ways:
Neither those who never smoked nor ex-smokers were significantly less likely in 1997-1998 than in 1986-1987 to consider smoking fun, attractive, athletic, or elegant, or more likely to consider it unattractive, inconsiderate, disease-causing, annoying, or smelly. Nonsmokers in 1997-1998 were more likely than nonsmokers in 1986-1987 to consider smoking to be negative and offensive. Ex-smokers in 1997-1998 were more likely than ex-smokers in 1986-1987 to consider smoking to be negative and addictive. Virtually no respondents in any smoking category at either time period stated that they considered smoking to be attractive, athletic, clean, elegant, cool, smart, adult, youthful, rational, sophisticated, sexy, or classy. We also compared the total number of positive and the total number of negative characteristics (as previously defined) attributed to cigarette smoking across samples. Table 2 shows the mean total positive and negative characteristics endorsed by never, former and current smokers in 1986-1987 and in 1997-1998. For both never and former smokers, t tests showed no statistically significant difference in either the positive or negative total over time; for current smokers, however, both the positive and the negative total differed significantly between the two samples. Because the two samples of current smokers differed on education and age, multiple linear regressions were done to determine whether these differences between the two samples of current smokers would persist after controlling for differences in demographic characteristics and sex. In the multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. with total number of positive characteristics endorsed as the dependent variable, age (P = .004), education (P = .04), sex (P = .02), and time of data collection (P = .0007) all had statistically significant regression coefficients Regression coefficient Term yielded by regression analysis that indicates the sensitivity of the dependent variable to a particular independent variable. See: Parameter. regression coefficient . In the regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. for the total number of negative characteristics endorsed, the regression coefficients for education (P= .0002), sex (P= .0008), and time of data collection (P = .0002) were significant. These results indicate that time of data collection was still a significant factor in determining the total number of positive and negative characteristics attributed to cigarette smoking by current smokers after controlling for the effects of age, sex, and education. DISCUSSION Contrary to our initial hypothesis, the 1997-1998 sample of smokers was less likely than the 1986-1987 sample to acknowledge that cigarettes cause disease and more likely to say that smoking was fun and uplifting. What might be contributing to the concerning and surprising decrease in the percentage of smokers who acknowledge tobacco's hazards? First, it may be that those smokers who acknowledged tobacco's hazards were more likely to have quit in the time between our two surveys, leaving more smokers who resisted the health messages. Second, the promotion of "low-tar," "low-nicotine" cigarettes may give smokers of such cigarettes false impressions about their safety. A 1998 study found that less than 10% of smokers nationally were aware that smoking one "light" cigarette can give as much tar as one regular cigarette. Further, their responses identified that this misperception mis·per·ceive tr.v. mis·per·ceived, mis·per·ceiv·ing, mis·per·ceives To perceive incorrectly; misunderstand. mis was interfering in·ter·fere intr.v. in·ter·fered, in·ter·fer·ing, in·ter·feres 1. To be or create a hindrance or obstacle: with cessation cessation Vox populi The stopping of a thing. See Smoking cessation. behavior; 32% of "light" smokers nationally would consider quitting if they discovered that their cigar ette gave them as much tar as a regular cigarette.(5) Third, tobacco companies have engaged in an active misinformation mis·in·form tr.v. mis·in·formed, mis·in·form·ing, mis·in·forms To provide with incorrect information. mis campaign, encouraging smokers to believe that tobacco is only a small portion of the risk of carcinogenesis car·ci·no·gen·e·sis n. The production of cancer. carcinogenesis production of cancer. biological carcinogenesis viruses and some parasites are capable of initiating neoplasia. or heart disease; the media also profoundly underrepresent un·der·rep·re·sent tr.v. un·der·rep·re·sent·ed, un·der·rep·re·sent·ing, un·der·rep·re·sents To imply or suggest a lower amount, quantity, quality, or degree of than is actually present: the hazards attributable attributable emanating from or pertaining to attribute. attributable proportion see attributable risk (below). attributable risk to tobacco use.(6,7) Tobacco companies' "Bill of Rights" campaign, promoting the idea that smoking is an act of independence, may have been effective with this group. In 1986-1987, 3% of smokers (the same versus percentage as nonsmokers at that time) considered smoking to be independent, versus 8% in 1997-1998. Tobacco companies' active refutation ref·u·ta·tion also re·fut·al n. 1. The act of refuting. 2. Something, such as an argument, that refutes someone or something. Noun 1. of their own and others' data on the addictiveness of cigarettes also seems to have had some success with these smokers; whereas most smokers in both time periods acknowledged that tobacco is addictive, slightly fewer acknowledged this in 1997-1998. It was also of interest that only one third of smokers in either period said that smoking was pleasurable, and that virtually no smokers, at either period, admitted that they considered smoking to be attractive, athletic, classy, clean, cool, elegant, sexy, smart, or sophisticated. Despite questionnaire anonymity, respondents may not understand or be willing to reveal all their motivations for smoking, and some smokers may in fact ascribe as·cribe tr.v. as·cribed, as·crib·ing, as·cribes 1. To attribute to a specified cause, source, or origin: "Other people ascribe his exclusion from the canon to an unsubtle form of racism" these positive characteristics to tobacco. Furthermore, potential smokers, an important target of tobacco companies' advertisements, may agree more with such descriptions of cigarettes. Alternatively, the prohealth movement has spent substantial efforts trying to counter tobacco companies' positive portrayals of smoking, and this might be an area where success could be declared de·clare v. de·clared, de·clar·ing, de·clares v.tr. 1. To make known formally or officially. See Synonyms at announce. 2. To state emphatically or authoritatively; affirm. 3. and the movement could move on to other strategies for decreasing smoking. We also observed an increase in nonsmokers' views of cigarettes as offensive and negative. This, combined with the paucity pau·ci·ty n. 1. Smallness of number; fewness. 2. Scarcity; dearth: a paucity of natural resources. of positive characteristics from the smoking group, may reflect success for the antitobacco campaign. The current study has several important limitations. Both the 1986-1987 and the 1997-1998 samples were convenience samples that were clinic-based. Our samples were also not demographically representative of the entire US population; they were less likely to be nonwhite/black than was the general US population and were, like most clinic populations, more likely to be female. The percentage that were high school graduates was lower than that of the rest of Georgia Georgia, country, Asia Georgia (jôr`jə), Georgian Sakartvelo, Rus. Gruziya, officially Republic of Georgia, republic (2005 est. pop. 4,677,000), c.26,900 sq mi (69,700 sq km), in W Transcaucasia. and of the general US population.(8) This may explain why their smoking rates and attitudes, unlike those of the general population over the decade, failed to improve; other studies have repeatedly shown that smoking rates are higher among the less educated and lower among nonwhite/black populations.(2) The changes in the population's characteristics across the decade reflected those of the general US population, becoming slightly older and more likely to be at least high school or college educated.(8) We believe these findings suggest that national efforts to alter the perception of the attributes of cigarette smoking may not have permeated all segments of the population. Despite substantial successes in reducing smoking rates nationally, efforts to further reduce rates by changing smokers' perceptions may require new strategies.
TABLE 1
Participants' Demographic Smoking-Related Characteristics
Characteristic 1986-1987 1997-1998 P Value *
Total n = 426 n = 604
Age [less than or
equal to].001
<20 19.9 13.3
20-24 13.4 10.2
25-29 11.3 10.5
30-39 18.3 20.7
40-49 10.6 20.0
50-59 9.2 14.0
60 or older 17.3 11.3
Mean 37.2 38.7
Median 32.5 38.0
Sex
Female 72.8% 73.6%
Male 27.2% 26.4%
Ethnicity [less than or
equal to].05
Black 16.7% 16.1%
White 83.0% 81.6%
Other 0.3% 2.3%
Education [less than or
equal to].001
[less than or equal 12.8% 5.3%
to]8th grade
8th-11th grade 41.0% 30.7%
12th grade 24.3% 28.9%
>12th grade 21.9% 35.1%
Marital status (age [greater
than or equal to]18 only)
Married 57.3% 53.5%
Divorced 15.2% 16.4%
Widowed 9.7% 7.5%
Single 17.7% 22.6%
Attend church
>1/month 55.5% 55.0%
[less than or equal 44.5% 45.0%
to 1/month]
Ever smoked
Yes 60.4% 57.1%
No 39.6% 42.9%
Smoke now
Yes 36.9% 33.2%
No 63.1% 66.8%
Ever heavy smoker
Yes 53.9% 56.0%
No 46.1% 44.0%
Current heavy smoker
Yes 69.5% 70.5%
No 30.5% 29.5%
Tried to quit (current smokers)
Yes 69.3% 67.8%
No 30.7% 32.2%
* Chi-square test for percentages and t test for means were used to test
for differences between 1985-1986 and 1997-1998.
TABLE 2
Reported Smoking-Related Attributes, 1986-1987 and 1997-1998 * +
Never Smoked
Descriptor % (95% CI)
Smoking behavior
1986-87 39 (34-44)
1997-98 41 (37-15)
Mean No. of positive attributes
1986-87 0.5 (0.4-0.6)
1997-98 0.5 (0.3-0.7)
Mean No. of negative attributes
1986-87 8.8 (8.2-9.4)
1997-98 9.2 (8.6-9.8)
Addictive
1986-87 68 (61-75)
1997-98 75 (69-81)
Adult
1986-87 7 (3-11)
1997-98 4 (2-7)
Annoying
1986-87 62 (55-69)
1997-98 58 (52-64)
Athletic
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Attractive
1986-87 2 (0-4)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Cancer-causing
1986-87 93 (89-97)
1997-98 93 (90-97)
Childish
1986-87 25 (18-32)
1997-98 24 (19-30)
Classy
1986-87 0
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Clean
1986-87 2 (0-4)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Cool
1986-87 2 (0-4)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Disease-causing
1986-87 90 (85-95)
1997-98 86 (81-91)
Dumb
1986-87 66 (59-73)
1997-98 61 (55-68)
Elegant
1986-87 0
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Expensive
1986-87 76 (70-83)
1997-98 77 (72-82)
Feminine
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Fun
1986-87 4 (1-7)
1997-98 3 (1-5)
Harmless
1986-87 6 (2-10)
1997-98 4 (1-7)
Heart disease-causing
1986-87 77 (71-83)
1997-98 82 (77-87)
Inconsiderate
1986-87 53 (45-61)
1997-98 62 (56-68)
Independent
1986-87 3 (0-6)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
"In" thing
1986-87 7 (3-11)
1997-98 6 (3-9)
Irrational
1986-87 30 (23-37)
1997-98 32 (26-38)
Manly
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 4 (2-7)
Negative
1986-87 32 (25-39)
1997-98 48 (41-55) (P [less than
or equal to] .001)
Nerve calming
1986-87 19 (13-25)
1997-98 16 (11-21)
Normal
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Offensive
1986-87 41 (34-49)
1997-98 56 (49-63) (P[less than
or equal to] .01)
Pleasurable
1986-87 6 (2-10)
1997-98 4 (2-7)
Popular
1986-87 8 (4-12)
1997-98 8 (5-12)
Positive
1986-87 2 (0-4)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
Rational
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Sexy
1986-87 2 (0-4)
1997-98 3 (1-5)
Show-off-y
1986-87 28 (21-35)
1997-98 23 (17-29)
Smart
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Smelly
1986-87 78 (72-84)
1997-98 80 (75-85)
Sophisticated
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Tough
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 3 (1-5)
Unattractive
1986-87 65 (58-72)
1997-98 64 (58-70)
Uplifting
1986-87 0
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Youthful
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Former Smoker
Descriptor % (95% CI)
Smoking behavior
1986-87 24 (20-28)
1997-98 26 (22-30)
Mean No. of positive attributes
1986-87 0.7 (0.3-1.1)
1997-98 0.8 (0.6-1.0)
Mean No. of negative attributes
1986-87 8.0 (7.2-8.8)
1997-98 8.4 (7.8-9.0)
Addictive
1986-87 66 (57-75)
1997-98 82 (76-88) (P[less than
or equal to].01)
Adult
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 6 (2-10)
Annoying
1986-87 45 (35-55)
1997-98 47 (39-55)
Athletic
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Attractive
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
Cancer-causing
1986-87 83 (76-90)
1997-98 88 (83-93)
Childish
1986-87 18 (10-26)
1997-98 18 (12-24)
Classy
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
Clean
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 0
Cool
1986-87 3 (0-6)
1997-98 6 (2-10)
Disease-causing
1986-87 82 (74-90)
1997-98 83 (77-89)
Dumb
1986-87 60 (50-70)
1997-98 55 (47-63)
Elegant
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
Expensive
1986-87 89 (83-95)
1997-98 84 (78-90)
Feminine
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 0
Fun
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 4 (1-7)
Harmless
1986-87 8 (3-13)
1997-98 3 (0-6)
Heart disease-causing
1986-87 70 (61-79)
1997-98 71 (64-78)
Inconsiderate
1986-87 42 (32-52)
1997-98 48 (40-56)
Independent
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
"In" thing
1986-87 6 (1-11)
1997-98 6 (2-10)
Irrational
1986-87 25 (17-34)
1997-98 21 (14-28)
Manly
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 4 (1-7)
Negative
1986-87 26 (17-35)
1997-98 38 (30-46 (P[less than
or equal to] .05)
Nerve calming
1986-87 30 (21-39)
1997-98 34 (26-42)
Normal
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 3 (0-6)
Offensive
1986-87 38 (28-48)
1997-98 45 (37-53)
Pleasurable
1986-87 11 (5-17)
1997-98 14 (8-20)
Popular
1986-87 7 (2-12)
1997-98 7 (3-11)
Positive
1986-87 4 (0-8)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
Rational
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 0
Sexy
1986-87 2 (0-5)
1997-98 3 (0-6)
Show-off-y
1986-87 26 (17-35)
1997-98 19 (13-25)
Smart
1986-87 0
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Smelly
1986-87 77 (69-85)
1997-98 81 (75-87)
Sophisticated
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 4 (0-3)
Tough
1986-87 6 (1-11)
1997-98 3 (0-6)
Unattractive
1986-87 52 (42-62)
1997-98 60 (52-68)
Uplifting
1986-87 5 (1-9)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Youthful
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-3)
Current Smokers
Descriptor % (95% CI)
Smoking behavior
1986-87 37 (32-42)
1997-98 33 (29-37)
Mean No. of positive attributes
1986-87 1.3 (1.1-1.5)
1997-98 1.7 (1.5-1.9) (P[less than
or equal to] .01))
Mean No. of negative attributes
1986-87 6.0 (5.6-6.4)
1997-98 4.9 (4.3-5.5) (P[less than
or equal to] .01)
Addictive
1986-87 72 (65-79)
1997-98 67 (60-74)
Adult
1986-87 4 (1-7)
1997-98 3 (1-5)
Annoying
1986-87 22 (15-29)
1997-98 17 (12-22)
Athletic
1986-87 0
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Attractive
1986-87 0
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Cancer-causing
1986-87 84 (78-90)
1997-98 57 (50-64) (P[less than
or equal to] .001)
Childish
1986-87 10 (5-15)
1997-98 5 (2-8)
Classy
1986-87 0
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Clean
1986-87 3 (1-6)
1997-98 0 (P[less than or equal
to] .05)
Cool
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
Disease-causing
1986-87 73 (66-80)
1997-98 51 (44-58) (P[less than
or equal to] .001)
Dumb
1986-87 38 (30-46)
1997-98 24 (18-30) (P[less than
or equal to] .01)
Elegant
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 0
Expensive
1986-87 89 (84-94)
1997-98 85 (80-90)
Feminine
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 0
Fun
1986-87 4 (1-7)
1997-98 14 (9-19) (P[less than
or equal to] .01)
Harmless
1986-87 6 (2-10)
1997-98 2 (0-4) (P[less than
or equal to] .05)
Heart disease-causing
1986-87 67 (60-74)
1997-98 45 (38-52) (P[less than
or equal to] .001)
Inconsiderate
1986-87 18 (12-24)
1997-98 17 (12-22)
Independent
1986-87 3 (1-6)
1997-98 8 (4-12) (P[less than
or equal to] .05)
"In" thing
1986-87 5 (2-8)
1997-98 3 (1-5)
Irrational
1986-87 8 (4-12)
1997-98 10 (6-14)
Manly
1986-87 0
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Negative
1986-87 11 (6-16)
1997-98 18 (13-24)
Nerve calming
1986-87 71 (64-78)
1997-98 80 (74-86)
Normal
1986-87 7 (3-11)
1997-98 7 (3-11)
Offensive
1986-87 17 (11-23)
1997-98 23 (17-29)
Pleasurable
1986-87 33 (26-40)
1997-98 34 (27-41)
Popular
1986-87 8 (4-12)
1997-98 8 (4-12)
Positive
1986-87 3 (0-6)
1997-98 0 (P[less than or equal
to].05)
Rational
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 0
Sexy
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 2 (0-4)
Show-off-y
1986-87 5 (2-8)
1997-98 1 (0-2) (P[less than or
equal to] .05)
Smart
1986-87 0
1997-98 0
Smelly
1986-87 55 (47-63)
1997-98 46 (39-53)
Sophisticated
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 4 (1-7)
Tough
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 3 (1-5)
Unattractive
1986-87 31 (24-38)
1997-98 26 (20-32)
Uplifting
1986-87 7 (3-11)
1997-98 20 (14-25) (P[less than
or equal to] .001)
Youthful
1986-87 1 (0-3)
1997-98 1 (0-2)
* P value of chi-square test for percentages and t test for means.
+ Tests are for difference between 2 years for each smoker category
except for smoking status.
References (1.) Achievements in Public Health, 1900-1999: Tobacco use--United States, 1900-1999. MMWR MMWR Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report Epidemiology A news bulletin published by the CDC, which provides epidemiologic data–eg, statistics on the incidence of AIDS, rabies, rubella, STDs and other communicable diseases, causes of mortality–eg, Morb Mortal mortal /mor·tal/ (mor´t'l) 1. subject to death, or destined to die. 2. fatal. mor·tal adj. 1. Liable or subject to death. 2. Wkly Rep (programming) REP - A directive used in IBM object code card decks (and later PTF Tapes) to REPlace fragments of already assembled or compiled object code prior to link edit. 1999; 48:986-993 (2.) Garfinkel Garfinkel is a surname, and may refer to:
(3.) Lichtenstein E: Behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. research contributions and needs in cancer prevention and control: tobacco use prevention and cessation. Prev Med 1997; 26:S57-S63 (4.) Brandt Brandt , Willy 1913-1992. German political leader. He served as chancellor of West Germany (1969-1974) and won the 1971 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to reduce tension between the East and the West. Noun 1. A: Recruiting women smokers: the engineering of consent. J Am Med Women's Assoc 1996; 51:63-66 (5.) Kozlowski LT, Goldberg ME, Yost B, et al: Smokers' misperceptions of light and ultra ultra Member of the extreme right (ultraroyalist) wing of the royalist movement in the French Bourbon Restoration (1815–30). The ultras included large landowners, clericalists, and the former émigré nobility. light cigarettes may keep them smoking. Am J Prev Med 1998;15:9-15 (6.) O'Keefe O'Keeffe, and Keeffe, are the anglicised versions of the Irish Ó Caoimh, from caomh, meaning "kind" or "gentle". The original Caomh from whom the family descend lived in the early eleventh century, and was a descendant of Art, King of Munster from 742 to 762. AM, Pollay RW: Deadly targeting of women in promoting cigarettes. J Am Med Women's Assoc 1996; 51:67-69 (7.) Frost K, Frank E, Maibach E: Relative risk in the news media: a quantification quan·ti·fy tr.v. quan·ti·fied, quan·ti·fy·ing, quan·ti·fies 1. To determine or express the quantity of. 2. of misrepresentation misrepresentation In law, any false or misleading expression of fact, usually with the intent to deceive or defraud. It most commonly occurs in insurance and real-estate contracts. False advertising may also constitute misrepresentation. . Am J Public Health 1997; 87:842-845 (8.) Statistical Abstract of the United States The Statistical Abstract of the United States is a publication of the United States Census Bureau, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce. Published annually since 1878, the statistics describe social and economic conditions in the United States. : 1999. Washington Washington, town, England Washington, town (1991 pop. 48,856), Sunderland metropolitan district, NE England. Washington was designated one of the new towns in 1964 to alleviate overpopulation in the Tyneside-Wearside area. , DC, US Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United States Bureau of the Census , 119th Ed, 1999, pp 15,171 RELATED ARTICLE: KEY POINTS * Surprisingly, smokers surveyed in 1997-1998 ascribed more positive characteristics and fewer health risks and other negative characteristics to smoking than did smokers surveyed in 1986-1987. * Reassuringly re·as·sure tr.v. re·as·sured, re·as·sur·ing, re·as·sures 1. To restore confidence to. 2. To assure again. 3. To reinsure. , ex-smokers in the second survey were more likely than ex-smokers in the first survey to consider smoking to be addictive. * Nonsmokers in 1997-1998 were more likely than nonsmokers in 1986-1987 to consider smoking to be negative and offensive. * Further improving smokers' risk perceptions may require new strategies for some populations. From the Department of Family and Preventive Medicine preventive medicine, branch of medicine dealing with the prevention of disease and the maintenance of good health practices. Until recently preventive medicine was largely the domain of the U.S. , Emory University Emory University (ĕm`ərē), near Atlanta, Ga.; coeducational; United Methodist; chartered as Emory College 1836, opened 1837 at Oxford. It became Emory Univ. in 1915 and in 1919 moved to Atlanta. School of Medicine, Atlanta Atlanta (ətlăn`tə, ăt–), city (1990 pop. 394,017), state capital and seat of Fulton co., NW Ga., on the Chattahoochee R. and Peachtree Creek, near the Appalachian foothills; inc. 1847. ; and the Office on Smoking and Health, Centers for Disease Control anti Prevention, Atlanta. Reprint reprint An individually bound copy of an article in a journal or science communication requests to Erica Frank Erica Frank, MD, MPH is an American physician, researcher and activist. She specializes in preventive medicine, and practices family and preventive medicine. Her research emphasizes the degree to which a clinician's positive health habits influences patients' positive health , MD, MPH MPH Master of Public Health. MPH Master's Degree in Public Health , Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, 69 Butler St SE, Atlanta, GA 30303. |
|
||||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion