DEVILS, FAMILIARS AND SPANIARDS: SPHERES OF POWER AND THE SUPERNATURAL IN THE WORLD OF SEBERINA CANDELARIA AND HER VILLAGE IN EARLY 19TH CENTURY PHILIPPINES.The University of Auckland Not to be confused with Auckland University of Technology. The University of Auckland (Māori: Te Whare Wānanga o Tāmaki Makaurau) is New Zealand's largest university. Historians are rarely permitted insight into the inner world of the imagination of those long dead. While the activities and deeds of a prominent few are well documented, the jumble of desires, fears and beliefs with which they perceived and attempted to make sense of the world around them is little understood. This is especially so in the case of the common people whose lives, let alone thoughts, are often the subject of historical speculation, especially in the non-western world where written records are few and their preservation haphazard. The trial, then, of Seberina Candelaria is deserving of our attention in all these respects. She is a young woman aged twenty-two, otherwise historically unremarkable, illiterate, from a largely insignificant rural community, Obando, north of Malabon and west of Polo, in the province of Bulacan on the archipelago's principal island of Luzon, who, in 1808, is arraigned before an ecclesiastical court The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. accused of associating with the Devil who appears to her in the form of a demonic familiar. The detailed transcripts of this case, that extend to nearly seventy closely hand-written pages, contain not only Seberina's compelling account of how she entered into compact with the Devil, but also the evidence of her neighbours and fellow villagers who sought to know the future or that which was hidden from them by currying favour with her familiar. As the case unfolds, the proceedings also provide insight into the beliefs and opinions of her examiners, revealing to what extent the Enlightenment had penetrated ecclesiastical views in the Philippines by the turn of the nineteenth century. While the nature of the power structure within municipalities has been the object of considerable scholarship,(1) the question of dissent and opposition in the village has received far less attention apart from the figure of the tulisan or bandit bandit: see brigandage. as social avenger.(2) But James Scott James Scott is the name of several people:
n. Concealment of the truth about a situation, especially about a state of health, as by a malingerer. , false compliance, pilfering pil·fer v. pil·fered, pil·fer·ing, pil·fers v.tr. To steal (a small amount or item). See Synonyms at steal. v.intr. To steal or filch. , feigned feigned adj. 1. Not real; pretended: a feigned modesty. 2. Made-up; fictitious. Adj. 1. ignorance, slander, arson, sabotage and the like. These models have subsequently been applied to more contemporary rural conditions in the Philippines.(5) However, Scott carried this notion of a dissonant dis·so·nant adj. 1. Harsh and inharmonious in sound; discordant. 2. Being at variance; disagreeing. 3. Music Constituting or producing a dissonance. political culture one step further to embrace not only actions but also the alternative meanings given to public texts and those words of anger, revenge or self-assertion spoken by sub-ordinates out of earshot ear·shot n. The range within which sound can be heard by the unaided ear; hearing distance: listened until the parade was out of earshot. of their betters.(6) These hidden transcripts most certainly masked acts of defiance but also functioned "as a barrier and a veil that the dominant find difficult or impossible to penetrate."(7) Here the scholar stands poised at the threshold At the Threshold, whose son Lil E. Tee won the 1992 Kentucky Derby for W. Cal Partee, died March 23 of a stroke at Purdue University School of Veterinary Medicine in West Lafayette, Ind. The 21-year-old stallion stood at Wayne Houston's Stoney Creek Horse Farm near Mooreland, Ind. of historical consciousness, how people perceived the world around them in the past, where sources that had been previously sparse now become virtually non-existent. The Philippines, in this respect, is actually more fortunate than many other societies in Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, region of Asia (1990 est. pop. 442,500,000), c.1,740,000 sq mi (4,506,600 sq km), bounded roughly by the Indian subcontinent on the west, China on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the east. , in that a considerable body of early lexicological and vernacular religious material has survived from which fascinating insights into the popular imagination have been inferred.(8) But sources such as the detailed transcripts of a trial for demonic possession Demonic possession, in supernatural belief systems, is a form of spiritual possession whereby certain malevolent extra-dimensional entities, demons, gain control over a mortal person's body, which is then used for an evil or destructive purpose. remain rare and are deserving of close historical scrutiny.(9) Witches and devils Before examining the case of Seberina Candelaria to see what light it sheds on the supernatural beliefs of a rural Tagalog community in the early nineteenth century, the concept of witchcraft both in western and indigenous societies requires some explanation and historical elaboration. The witch has alternately either been regarded as primarily a delusional figure or been accepted as fact in Christianised Europe.(10) The existence of the Devil was not doubted before the scientific rationalism of the nineteenth century but his powers have been variously assessed at different times. Thus the thesis that demonic action was real but essentially psychological or spiritual in character, sometimes referred to as the Augustinian doctrine, prevailed throughout much of the Middle Ages. Weak minds, particularly, it was thought, those of women, were liable to be deceived by blandishments and vain imaginings imaginings Noun, pl speculative thoughts about what might be the case or what might happen; fantasies: lurid imaginings .(11) Gradually this view was replaced by one in which theologians, beginning with Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century, no longer believed that the Devil's power was limited to simply the mental sphere but had a real existence in the form of magic performed by practitioners in the black arts who worshipped and entered into a covenant or pact with the Devil. By the late fifteenth century, witches, far from being poor deluded individuals, were now considered dangerous criminals who used their powers of enchantment, spell and sorcery sorcery: see incantation; magic; spell; witchcraft. Sorcery Sorrow (See GRIEF.) sorcerer’s apprentice finds a spell that makes objects do the cleanup work. [Fr. to bring about death, disease and misfortune to their neighbours. While there were marked variations among countries and even among regions, the systematic persecution of witches came to be regarded not only as a religious duty but as the civic responsibility of ecclesiastical authorities. The publication of Malleus Maleficarum The Malleus Maleficarum[2](Latin for "The Hammer of Witches", or "Hexenhammer" in German) is one of the most famous medieval treatises on witches. It was written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, and was first published in Germany in 1487. (Hammer of Witches) in 1487 established witchcraft as primarily a social crime of malefice and provided the manual by which the great witch-hunts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were conducted, reaching a climax between 1575-1650.(12) Prosecutions continued into the early eighteenth century until beliefs in the actual demonic powers of the witch were supplanted by the conviction, borne of the Enlightenment, that witchcraft was simply the popular derangement de·range·ment n. 1. Disturbance of the regular order or arrangement of parts in a system. 2. Mental disorder; insanity. de·range of ignorant people, only to be finally dismissed as pure fantasy in the twentieth century.(13) One of the principal debates in the historiography of European witchcraft European witchcraft is witchcraft and magic that is practised primarily in the locality of Europe. History of European witchcraft was prompted by Margaret Murray's assertion that the witch, rather than being a fabrication fabrication (fab´rikā´sh  n),n the construction or making of a restoration. , actually belonged to a pre-Christian Dianic fertility cult that had survived in certain remote regions of the continent.(14) She claims that the existence of this religion was responsible for the extraordinary consistency over time and place in the beliefs and rituals associated with witchcraft as manifest in trial confessions. Murray's ideas were not accepted, her evidence questioned and she accused of having "invented a religion for the purposes of her argument."(15) But no such simple refutations can be made in the case of the Philippines. Unlike other societies within Southeast Asia where there has been a notable lack of detailed accounts of witchcraft and sorcery witchcraft and sorcery Use of alleged supernatural powers, usually to control people or events. Sorcery is sometimes distinguished from witchcraft in that sorcery may be practiced by anyone with the appropriate knowledge, using charms, spells, or potions, whereas witchcraft in the ethnographic literature,(16) there is substantial evidence of malign magical practices surviving the enforced Christianisation of the colonial period Colonial Period may generally refer to any period in a country's history when it was subject to administration by a colonial power.
An important aspect of the Spanish conquest and incorporation of the Philippines, largely overlooked by historians, is that these events took place at the height of the great witchcraft persecutions. While more witches were burnt at the stake in France and Germany, nonetheless there were notable witchcraft trials in Spain at the start of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially in the Basque provinces Basque Provinces A region comprising three provinces of northern Spain on the Bay of Biscay. It borders on France in the northeast along the western Pyrenees. .(18) The prevalent theological opinion on witchcraft must have influenced the way in which the early missionary fathers viewed the religious practices they encountered in the islands after 1565. More especially, the disappointing experience of the Americas, where idolatrous i·dol·a·trous adj. 1. Of or having to do with idolatry. 2. Given to blind or excessive devotion to something: "The religiosity of the practices thrived despite the early enthusiasm with which tens of thousands of indigenous peoples The term indigenous peoples has no universal, standard or fixed definition, but can be used about any ethnic group who inhabit the geographic region with which they have the earliest historical connection. had flocked to seemingly embrace the Holy Faith, must have proved a salutary admonition Any formal verbal statement made during a trial by a judge to advise and caution the jury on their duty as jurors, on the admissibility or nonadmissibility of evidence, or on the purpose for which any evidence admitted may be considered by them. to many. As apostasy apostasy, in religion: see heresy. Apostasy See also Sacrilege. Aholah and Aholibah symbolize Samaria’s and Jerusalem’s abandonment to idols. [O.T. was increasingly seen as the Devil's handiwork, local inhabitants
The game is based loosely on the concepts from SameGame. were no longer regarded as ignorant simpletons but as members of a counter-Church with its own parodies of Christian rites: 'excrements' instead of sacraments, female as opposed to male ministers.(19) It is from a theological perspective formulated in the context of the great European witch-hunts and confirmed by their recent experience in the Americas that the missionary orders embarked on the conversion of the Philippines and approached the religious practices of the archipelago's inhabitants. What they found, of course, only seemed to confirm the worst of their fears, with many of the early missionaries regarding the Indios as being in the Devil's service.(20) Early accounts of the islands suggest that the various peoples of Luzon and the Visayas were mainly Animist an·i·mism n. 1. The belief in the existence of individual spirits that inhabit natural objects and phenomena. 2. The belief in the existence of spiritual beings that are separable or separate from bodies. 3. , venerating ven·er·ate tr.v. ven·er·at·ed, ven·er·at·ing, ven·er·ates To regard with respect, reverence, or heartfelt deference. See Synonyms at revere1. the spirits of nature and those of their ancestors while placating a host of malevolent ones.(21) There were reportedly no temples or gathering places set apart for worship though certain topographical features or groves were held to be the preserve of particular spirits.(22) Sacred effigies ef·fi·gy n. pl. ef·fi·gies 1. A crude figure or dummy representing a hated person or group. 2. A likeness or image, especially of a person. , however, were commonplace and revered in most homes being referred to variously as anitos or divitas and being variously associated with war, health, agriculture, fisheries and the like and to which sacrifice and offerings of perfume and food were made.(23) More important ceremonies were performed by a numerous class of professional celebrants, mainly women, known as catalonans (Tagalog) or babaylanes (Visayan) in private homes or at feasts in specially prepared bowers erected for that purpose close to the host's house.(24) Though many priestesses evidently inherited their office, ties of kinship might also be adoptive and all served a noviciate no·vi·ti·ate also no·vi·ci·ate n. 1. The period of being a novice. 2. A place where novices live. 3. See novice. before officiating at rituals, for which services they were paid, reference being made to their rich attire, jewels and wealth.(25) The central feature of these ceremonies was the moment at which the priestess entered a trance where her body would become possessed by the spirit being evoked or placated.(26) Sometimes these actions might be quite violent affairs, reference being made to them hurled to the ground foaming at the mouth, staring wildly, with their hair standing on end.(27) In these states, the priestesses would communicate with the participants, interpreting signs and omens and answering questions, though their responses were often capable of various interpretations.(28) Dance and song were important elements of the ritual, precipitating the reverie, and would be performed by celebrants to the accompaniment of bell, gong and kettle-drum,(29) the cadence of which was described as harsh and irregular.(30) Onlookers, meanwhile, would drink themselves into states of complete inebriation inebriation /in·e·bri·a·tion/ (in-e?bre-a´shun) drunkenness; intoxication with, or as if with, alcohol. in·e·bri·a·tion n. The condition of being intoxicated, as with alcohol. .(31) Apart from divination divination, practice of foreseeing future events or obtaining secret knowledge through communication with divine sources and through omens, oracles, signs, and portents. and auguries usually performed on animal entrails en·trails pl.n. The internal organs, especially the intestines; viscera. ,(32) the priestesses were also consulted as physicians.(33) Evidently, many had extensive knowledge of herbs whose properties were used medicinally to cure disease which, no doubt, contributed to their status.(34) But their station in indigenous society remains more difficult to gauge. Spanish missionary sources attempt to decry de·cry tr.v. de·cried, de·cry·ing, de·cries 1. To condemn openly. 2. To depreciate (currency, for example) by official proclamation or by rumor. their influence: Fr Colin contending that "they were not honoured or esteemed" but considered "an idle lot who lived by the sweat of others."(35) Pedro Careen, on the other hand, while dismissing the priestesses as "a band of worthless women," goes on to deplore de·plore tr.v. de·plored, de·plor·ing, de·plores 1. To feel or express strong disapproval of; condemn: "Somehow we had to master events, not simply deplore them" their "tyrannical hold" upon the village "by various means and plots compelling many to repair to them upon every occasion."(36) However, their function as intermediaries with the spirit world, often on behalf of the sick, combined with their medicinal skills, confirm the role of these women as shamans whose importance would be considerable especially within societies without highly developed superordinate forms of social control. Certainly most of the missionary fathers thought these women dangerous influences and considered them responsible for the regular incidences of apostasy with which they had to contend. In the first place, the priestesses were held to derive their powers from the Devil with whom they were in communication.(37) They were blamed for the governmental and religious institutions of the country "founded on tradition, and on custom introduced by the Devil himself" through their offices.(38) All the inhabitants, therefore, were 'in the service of the devil,' "a people abandoned by the hand of God and governed by the devil in accordance with his laws."(39) Despite the initial willingness of many indigenous people to embrace Christianity, apostasy was rife and priests were urged to be on their guard against backsliders.(40) Many pre-Christian rites were maintained in secret(41) under a veil of silence and subterfuge sub·ter·fuge n. A deceptive stratagem or device: "the paltry subterfuge of an anonymous signature" Robert Smith Surtees. to conceal such worship from the notice of local priests.(42) On some other occasions, however, their practice provided the nucleus about which more serious opposition to Spanish rule coalesced co·a·lesce intr.v. co·a·lesced, co·a·lesc·ing, co·a·lesc·es 1. To grow together; fuse. 2. To come together so as to form one whole; unite: , as in the revolt on Bohol in 1622.(43) Spanish authorities were uniformly hostile to the maintenance of pre-Christian practices. Parishioners were urged to abjure such rites and denounce all sorcerers, witches, magicians and apostates on pain of being 'punished most severely'.(44) In particular, children, receiving instruction in the local convento, were exhorted to report the activities of their parents and elders to the parish priest Parish priest may refer to
tr.v. des·e·crat·ed, des·e·crat·ing, des·e·crates To violate the sacredness of; profane. [de- + (con)secrate. sacred artefacts by throwing them into the privies and urinating and defecating over them.(45) In the most extreme cases, there is also evidence that some celebrants were burnt "in order that, by the light of that fire, the blindness in which the divata had kept them deluded might be removed."(46) Despite the severity of Spanish responses on occasions and the increasing consolidation of the colonial regime during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, there is no indication that pre-Christian rites and practices ceased, though they certainly became more clandestine. Incidences of such worship uncovered among the Zambals in 1683 were said to involve 'the principal people of the village'.(47) Mid eighteenth century Augustinian and Dominican missions to the Visayan islands Visayan Islands (vĭsī`ən), large island group (1990 pop. 13,794,991), c.24,000 sq mi (62,160 sq km), in and around the Visayan Sea, central Philippines. report the presence of 'wizards' able to change themselves into crocodiles or other animals to commit murder, and of sorcerers whose magic is able to cause or cure various sicknesses.(48) A fascinating account of the continuing widespread prevalence of these beliefs and practices is contained in a supplement to El Renacimiento, a Manila newspaper, written by Jose Nunez in 1905.(49) The author recounts his own experiences with regard to witchcraft and the existence of witches which he calls mangkukulams. Remaining entirely sceptical himself ("I have not come to believe in, or to be convinced of, the existence of witches in Filipinas"), he nonetheless concludes that "such beliefs continue to exist in the popular mind."(50) Nor have these kinds of beliefs apparently disappeared as a result of the dramatic political, social and economic upheavals of the twentieth century. The anthropologist, Richard Lieban, recorded 111 cases of sorcery and malign magic in Cebu, the Philippines' second largest city, and on the neighbouring island of Negros during the 1960s.(51) Moreover, there appears to be a remarkable continuity in the types and forms of practices described by these authors spanning the centuries from the initial accounts of the early Spanish missionary fathers to Lieban's study four hundred years Four Hundred Years was a melodic screamo band from Richmond, VA. Although they were only together for just over two years, the band produced two full-length releases and a compilation of singles on Lovitt Records. later. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , far from being supplanted by the introduction and near universal adoption of Christianity in the northern and central islands of the archipelago, the evidence suggests that such beliefs remained commonplace in many parts of the Philippines, especially in rural areas. It is in this context, then, that the circumstances surrounding the trial of Seberina Candelaria need to be considered. The supernatural world of Seberina Candelaria Charges accusing Seberina of consorting with a duende du·en·de n. The ability to attract others through personal magnetism and charm. [Spanish dialectal, charm, from Spanish, ghost, from Old Spanish, owner, proprietor, from or demon familiar were laid before the vicario foraneo, the bishop's representative at the district level and the lowest level of the judicial structure in ecclesiastical matters, in the casa parroquial of Obando on 4 June 1808.(52) It was averred that her familiar was able to determine the identity of thieves, the whereabouts of lost items and other marvels during nightly gatherings held in the town and throughout the district. Many people had been attracted to these assemblies, bringing with them money and candles as offerings in the hope of securing an auspicious response to their questions. As a result of these allegations, the judge ordered the arrest and confinement, incommunicado in·com·mu·ni·ca·do adv. & adj. Without the means or right of communicating with others: a prisoner held incommunicado; incommunicado political detainees. , of Seberina, her husband, Sebastian, and their various accomplices while an investigation of these events was made.(53) The evidence collected during the course of the inquiry includes the frank and detailed statement of the defendant herself, and this provides one of those rare opportunities enabling the reader to enter into the consciousness of someone alive two centuries ago and to experience the world, if for however briefly, as she did. Seberina describes how she was followed one day as she was returning home from Polo, the nearest town, after prayers. As her pursuer drew close by, she perceived it "to be a man or such she took it to be" and she addressed him, asking him why he was following her in this manner when she was a married woman. He responded by making crude aspersions aspersions npl to cast aspersions on → difamar a, calumniar a aspersions npl to cast aspersions on → dénigrer casting doubt on her marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , and then the two proceeded on their way as before. Nothing else untoward took place until Seberina approached the house of her mother-in-law when a nearby tree suddenly began to shake so violently that she thought it would fall on top of her. Other strange things then began to happen: sand was continually flung about the house and objects mysteriously moved but there was no more sign of the man. Some days later, however, a small figure, no bigger than half a vara (1 vara = 0.836 metres), appeared to her while she was working in the family field (sementera).(54) He offered her a golden rosary and a purse of money and grew angry when she refused them, pinching her, throwing sand into her eyes and calling her mad. After this, he appeared most days at sunset, telling her that he was a demon familiar and that his name was Isac.(55) When Seberina returned to Obando, the familiar followed. From this time on, Isac conversed with her frequently, answering any question she put to him. Soon the news spread and people started coming to the house to consult him, offering money in return for information about the whereabouts of lost or stolen items. Few, however, claimed to have seen the familiar, and those that did reported only a shape dimly perceived in a dark corner. Certainly, there are no other descriptions of his appearance. But everyone heard him: witnesses' testimonies describe a great variety of voices - thick and muffled muf·fle 1 tr.v. muf·fled, muf·fling, muf·fles 1. To wrap up, as in a blanket or shawl, for warmth, protection, or secrecy. 2. a. , thin and clear, small 'as if faked by someone'. Often these voices appeared to originate outside the room, from beneath the floor or above the ceiling. Sometimes Isac sang, entertaining his audience with verses from popular or amorous am·o·rous adj. 1. Strongly attracted or disposed to love, especially sexual love. 2. Indicative of love or sexual desire: an amorous glance. 3. ballads though it was not always possible 'to understand what he said in his song'. At other times, he would abuse them, mouthing 'kitchen remarks', making obscene allusions to his and their genitalia genitalia /gen·i·ta·lia/ (jen?i-tal´e-ah) [L.] the reproductive organs. ambiguous genitalia , and commenting on the activities of spouses in the absence of their partners. Usually he danced: both the executed steps of formal dances but also wild cavorts and capers CAPERS. Vessels of war owned by private persons, and different from ordinary privateers (q.v.) only in size, being smaller. Bea. Lex. Mer. 230. to the sound of castanets castanets (kăs'tənĕts`), percussion instruments known to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, possibly of Middle Eastern origin, now used primarily in Spanish dance music or imitations of it. and drum. Again these activities were mainly heard rather than seen, taking place in a darkened dark·en v. dark·ened, dark·en·ing, dark·ens v.tr. 1. a. To make dark or darker. b. To give a darker hue to. 2. To fill with sadness; make gloomy. 3. alcove or nook where visibility was poor. However, several witnesses insist that it was impossible for Seberina to have played a role in the production of these sounds and that she could always be seen at some distance from where the noise emanated. All these gatherings took place after dark.(56) Isac's reputation spread and presently Seberina was invited to homes in Polo and throughout the district as he only appeared when she was present. On these visits, all manner of questions were put to the familiar. Many inquiries had to do with stray animals or other lost items. One man returned on three consecutive nights seeking the whereabouts of a missing horse, having failed each time to find the beast at the designated location. Many apparently believed the familiar had the power to move things, asking him to return missing goods from whence they had come. Others asked after their loved ones loved ones npl → seres mpl queridos loved ones npl → proches mpl et amis chers loved ones love npl : whether they were safe, had they been arrested, were they on their way home. Or they were concerned about their health. There are indications that Seberina also acted as a healer, though her performance in this role does not seem to have been directly related to the familiar but rather to have been strengthened through her association with him.(57) While Seberina's visits conferred a certain local notoriety on her, they may also have become something of a necessity. Her husband, Sebastian, arrested along with her but against whom charges were subsequently dropped, had begun to beat her. He wanted an end to these nightly entertainments in what was his mother's house. Perhaps, too, there was a degree of maternal rivalry or pressure. Seberina tried to put a stop to these visitations "but she did not know how to and he [the familiar] always came anyhow."(58) Events now begin to elude her control. People in the village and the surrounding district become alarmed. The evidence of Fulgencio de San Juan San Juan, city, Argentina San Juan (săn wän, Span. sän hwän), city (1991 pop. 353,476), capital of San Juan prov., W Argentina. It is a commercial and industrial center in an agricultural region. , a local chorister cho·ris·ter n. 1. A singer in a choir, especially a choirboy or choirgirl. 2. A leader of a choir. [Middle English queristre, from Anglo-Norman *cueristre , clearly strikes the note of unease that many felt despite due reservations that should be given to the nature of his occupation and the context of the venue in which he spoke. A witness to one of these nightly events, he says how: "seeing the futility of these happenings, some false, others true, and that in all cases that it might be wrong to be present at such gatherings . . . he left."(59) Others, however, were not content with merely withdrawing: the fiscal, Don Luis Don Luis (b. 1543? - 1646 ?) was a Native American who was the son of an Algonquian chief in an area which eventually became Virginia in the United States. He may have become the father of Wahunsonacock (better known as Chief Powhatan) or, even less likely, may be the same Navarro, known as Maestro Luis, denounces her to the parish priest and she is arrested.(60) But the matter does not end with Seberina's confinement to the stocks in the local casa real or town hall. Isac pursues her even there, exchanging filthy innuendoes with the guards over possible marriage partners for Alin Vela vela plural of velum. , the village's bieja loca ('mad old woman') and other such inanities. On the next night, she confronts him, demanding an explanation for her present sufferings, including, it seems, a whipping. Finally, she tells him to leave her alone and begins to recite the Creed. Pandemonium Pandemonium Milton’s capital of the devils. [Br. Lit.: Paradise Lost] See : Confusion Pandemonium chief city of Hell. [Br. Lit.: Paradise Lost] See : Hell then breaks out. There is a deafening noise, so loud that the guard outside thought that 'the house was falling down', as Isac hurls a large piece of wood at her (described by the jailer as 'too heavy for Seberina to have handled'), missing but hitting the door. She cries out for help as he begins to lift the stocks but the guard arrives at this moment with a light to find her "trembling all over her body and so cold that he thought she was at her last breath."(61) And from that moment on she never sees nor hears from Isac again. The supernatural world of the village The testimony of Seberina Candelaria provides valuable insight into the world view of the rural population of the Philippines at the start of a century of change and transition that was to prove so influential in shaping that society. It also raises serious questions about the degree to which Christianity had displaced earlier beliefs after more than 200 years of friar evangelisation and mission in the archipelago, suggesting the continuance of another level of reality that was only lightly, if at all, touched by the ministrations of the Church. But the priest was himself an important part of the village world, and the deliberations of Seberina's inquisitors disclose much about their attitudes and perspectives and, in the process, indicate the increasing gulf that separated them from their parishioners. An essential first step in this inquiry is to consider the extent to which Seberina Candelaria's views represent those of the majority rural population at the time: to determine that she was not simply a delusional psychotic but that her lore formed part of a wider belief system shared by many if not most of her neighbours. More significant than simply the number of people who evidently attended the nightly gatherings is the social status of those who came to ask questions of the familiar. The identity of those called to give testimony at Seberina's trial reveals that many belonged to the principalia or local village elite, precisely the people one might expect to have been most exposed to Christianity and Hispanic culture Hispanic culture is a term used to identify the culture found in Spain and in the countries that were part of the Spanish Empire, including Mexico, Peru and other countries that were formerly part of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru. over the last two centuries. One of the principal venues for Seberina and Isac was the home of Don Fernando Caguia, the gobernadorcillo or municipal administrator and magistrate of Obando. In particular, his wife was very solicitous so·lic·i·tous adj. 1. a. Anxious or concerned: a solicitous parent. b. Expressing care or concern: made solicitous inquiries about our family. of her husband's health and good fortune. Among the distinguished visitors to the house was Don Josef Thoribio of Polo, better known as Captain Biyo, who came on four consecutive nights to inquire after the whereabouts of his dead son's horse. Biyo recounts how he came to Obando to light a candle To Light a Candle is the 2004 second fantasy novel of Mercedes Lackey and James Mallory's Obsidian Trilogy. Plot summary The struggle Continues against the Demons and introduces new heroes and enemies along the way. to Santa Clara Santa Clara, city, Cuba Santa Clara (sän`tä klä`rä), city (1994 est. pop. 217,000), capital of Villa Clara prov., central Cuba. in the church there but, after hearing the news and seeing the 'great concourse of people' at Don Fernando's, had decided to ask the familiar on his own behalf. After paying two reales to Seberina, he was told the animal could be found in Bigaa but, unable to locate the beast there he returned a second and then a third time to be told it had moved to Tinaferos and then Santol. Angrily, Biyo returned on yet a fourth night offering to pay two pesos Two Pesos was a Tex-Mex restaurant chain in Texas that opened about 1985 in Houston. It was similar to Taco Cabana but Two Pesos never opened in Taco Cabana's home market of San Antonio. if the familiar would tell him for certain where the horse was or have it brought back to him.(62) Seberina mentions another occasion when she was invited to the house of a certain Captain Pasqual Castila in Polo who wanted to consult the familiar over some missing goods.(63) Nor were the local police above such consultations, even if their inquiries were of a somewhat more basic and cruder nature. All in all, a picture emerges of a community in and around Obando that accepts the existence of a supernatural realm inhabited by both malign and benevolent spirits benevolent spirits (b  ·neˑ·v with which it was possible to communicate through the medium of familiars like Isac. For the young, such impressions were only reinforced by the seeming endorsement given by their elders and betters. The chorister, Fulgencio de San Juan, despite his misgivings about attending such gatherings, felt that they had been "authorised by the presence of many from the principalia."(64) The actions of prominent members of the community like Captain Biyo speak louder than any reservation which witnesses may have expressed at a legal hearing before the vicario foraneo, who, after all, was also a priest. The participation of the principalia in the maintenance of such practices remains intriguing. Earlier evidence suggests a fairly close relationship between celebrants at pre-Hispanic religious ceremonies and local elites. An account written in 1683 specifically identifies native priests or babaylanes as drawn from the 'principal people of the village'.(65) Certainly the cleric involved in Seberina's case expresses deep concern about the extent of the elite's role, even accusing the gobernadorcillo and principales of Obando as her 'accomplices'. The vicario foraneo blames the prevalence of these types of cases on the fact that municipal officers were Indios and, the more one reprimanded or exhorted them to take firmer action, "the more they are the first to hide such things."(66) Possession by a demonic familiar, then, was evidently not regarded by this churchman as unique or particularly exceptional. Instances of similar and related practices are also revealed in the vicario foraneo's report to the archbishop in Manila. While a missionary in the uplands, he had come upon another case whereby an eight year old girl had been possessed by a demonic familiar who appeared to her in the shape of a 'black (Negrito) child'. He describes how this spirit managed to win the confidence and trust of the child, becoming its friend and playmate "but without losing any occasion on which to instruct her in the most obscene entertainments." It took the priest over two years to convince the girl about the nature and true identity of her companion and to teach her to conduct herself"with all the judgement of a good christian adult." The priest then consoles himself with the reflection that her death, at the age of ten, was an occasion of much edification ed·i·fi·ca·tion n. Intellectual, moral, or spiritual improvement; enlightenment. Noun 1. edification - uplifting enlightenment sophistication to the entire mission.(67) In still another part of his letter to the prelate PRELATE. The name of an ecclesiastical officer. There are two orders of prelates; the first is composed of bishops, and the second, of abbots, generals of orders, deans, &c. , the priest relates what he knows about other forms of divination commonly practised within his parish. In particular, he recounts how people who have lost things or had them stolen will frequently consult a diviner who places a light in the middle of a reed tray or sieve (bilao) about which are placed playing cards playing cards, parts of a set or deck, used in playing various games of chance or skill. The origin of playing cards is unknown, and almost as many theories exist as there are historians of the subject. and other objects. The whereabouts of missing items are inferred from the inclination of the flame towards the objects on the bilao.(68) Similar practices were witnessed by Antonio Mozo mo·zo n. pl. mo·zos Southwestern U.S. 1. A man who helps with a pack train or serves as a porter. 2. An assistant. and Tomas Ortiz during the eighteenth century but, in these instances, the divinations were performed by shaking the sieve.(69) Far from being a world in which such ideas were considered to be arcane relics of customary tradition, the vicario foraneo's report suggests that many indigenous people held a more diverse world view than might be supposed from their outward adherence to Christianity. This impression receives further reinforcement by a comparison of the activities surrounding Seberina's possession as related in the transcripts of her trial with the accounts of ritual practices performed by babaylanes as described by the early missionary fathers. The importance of music is particularly evident to both but so is the apparent strange symmetry of harmonics between the instruments despite the separation of centuries: the often uncoordinated un·co·or·di·nat·ed adj. 1. Lacking physical or mental coordination. 2. Lacking planning, method, or organization. un beat of castanets and drum to which Isac performed(70) and the irregular cadence of bell, gong and kettle-drum to which the priestesses danced.(71) Song, too, appears to play a central role in both descriptions. Several witnesses make mention of the familiar singing a broad range of verses from canticles Canticles, another name for the Song of Solomon. to amorous tunes,(72) and song was also a noted part of the ceremonies at which babaylanes were celebrants.(73) Again many of those who testified at the trial of Seberina remarked on the unusual characteristics of the familiar's voice just as an earlier report describes such voices as emanating from 'a hollow reed'.(74) Given these similarities and those of venue (private homes), activity (divination) and participation (including local dignitaries), there would appear to be some doubt as to how Seberina was regarded by her local community: as a woman possessed by a demonic familiar within a Christian cosmology of God and the Devil, as an officiating celebrant within a tradition of customary beliefs with its origins in the pre-Hispanic period, or as something of both. Even the outward manifestations of Christianity may need examination as being more in the minds of Seberina's sacerdotal sac·er·do·tal adj. 1. Of or relating to priests or the priesthood; priestly. 2. Of or relating to sacerdotalism. [Middle English, from Old French, from Latin interlocutors than in her own or those of her fellow villagers. However, such an interpretation gives insufficient recognition to the impact of centuries of Christian evangelisation in the Philippines and to the way in which elements of power external to those societies were often selectively incorporated within local communities to create new cosmologies that were neither wholly foreign nor wholly customary. Dieter Bartels argues that the Ambonese responded to Europeans by absorbing elements of the newcomers' beliefs thought to confer access to sources of power previously unknown, eventually syncretising them into a system in which traditional elements were preserved. Rather than invalidating customary beliefs, such new knowledge served only to enrich the Ambonese conceptualisation (artificial intelligence) conceptualisation - The collection of objects, concepts and other entities that are assumed to exist in some area of interest and the relationships that hold among them. of the universe, so that elements of both systems were retained without any apparent contradiction.(75) Certainly, there are aspects of both customary and Christian beliefs in Seberina's case. In response to repeated questions about Isac's identity, she eventually calls him a 'tianac', a mischievous and diminutive sprite or dwarf common to the folklore of Tagalog, Bikol and Visayan traditions and described by both Mozo and Ortiz in the eighteenth century.(76) Indeed, there are a number of striking similarities between Seberina's experience with Isac and the explanation of such phenomena given by Tomas Ortiz. The patianacs whom some also call a goblin (but it is only their invention, dream, or imagination) must be the genius or devil who generally plays with them as also with many others, when losing the faith, they espouse his cause, become familiar with him, or become subject to him. They attribute to this being the ill success of births, and say that in order to harm them and cause their destruction, he enters or hides in some tree or in any other place near the house of a woman who is about to give birth, and there they sing like those who wander about, etc.(77) However, despite her evident association of the familiar with a figure from indigenous cosmology, she can only succeed in liberating herself from his influence through recourse to the Christian profession of faith, by reciting the Creed. These two belief systems, the native and the foreign, become even further blurred in the form of Isac himself. While the figure of a tianak is variously depicted as dark with horns, fangs, long pointed ears and angular features,(78) Seberina's familiar is imbued with all the characteristics of her colonial 'masters'. She describes him as dressed like a Spaniard, wearing a beret and bearing a palo or staff of office.(79) Nor does Isac simply perform just any old dance but specifically la marcha, the bolero bolero (bəlâr`ō), national dance of Spain, introduced c.1780 by Sebastian Zerezo, or Cerezo. Of Moroccan origin, it resembles the fandango. and fandangos, all eminently Spanish steps The Spanish Steps (Italian: Scalinata della Trinità dei Monti) is a set of steps in Rome, Italy, climbing a steep slope between the Piazza di Spagna at the base and Piazza Trinità dei Monti, dominated by Trinità dei Monti, the church that was under the patronage of and all to the accompaniment of castanets.(80) It would seem that devils, familiars and Spaniards had become one - at least in the cosmology of Seberina Candelaria and her village. A somewhat similar transcultural association has been noted among medieval Christian communities in Europe to whom the Devil was often manifested as a Moor.(81) But more is going on here than simply the 'colonisation of the indigenous spirit world' as Hispanic and Christian forms take on shape and substance within local belief systems. The very symbols of Spanish power, both its secular might and spiritual prowess, have been appropriated and incorporated into native concepts of power. At their initial meeting on the road from Polo, Seberina is offered a rosary, a visible manifestation of the power of the Catholic Church, by Isac whom she perceives to be a tianak, an indigenous malevolent sprite but who wears European clothes and bears the staff of colonial office. The fact that Seberina may be representative of a long tradition of female intermediaries with the spirit world known all over the archipelago from pre-Christian times should not obscure an appreciation of her ability to tap these new sources of power, ones, moreover, that were external to her community and whose acquisition conferred on her a higher status than she had enjoyed previously. While priestly office was mainly limited to elite groups within society, such restrictions may have had no weight when it came to tapping previously unknown sources of power. Thus, as Bartels notes on Ambon, "new powers can be attained by anyone, regardless of previous position in society and this can have a great effect on the social structure."(82) It may be no coincidence that the person who eventually denounced Seberina to the authorities was a member of the principalia, Maestro Luis, who might have felt that his own and his peer's influence in the community was increasingly being eroded by the sway of this woman.(83) The possibility of competition between Seberina and a local authority structure dominated by men raises another aspect of her appropriation and incorporation of new sources of power. The conquistadores brought with them a very different concept of gender construction that emphasised Catholic mother-centred definitions of womanhood and affected relations between the sexes, restricting women's activities largely to the private sphere The private sphere is the complement or opposite of the public sphere. Heidegger argues that it is only in the private sphere that one can be one's authentic self. See also privacy. . The public sphere The public sphere is a concept in continental philosophy and critical theory that contrasts with the private sphere, and is the part of life in which one is interacting with others and with society at large. was defined as masculine. In other words, the Spanish colonisation of the Philippines involved not only the physical subjugation Subjugation Cushan-rishathaim Aram king to whom God sold Israelites. [O.T.: Judges 3:8] Gibeonites consigned to servitude in retribution for trickery. [O.T.: Joshua 9:22–27] Ham Noah curses him and progeny to servitude. [O. of the indigenous peoples to Europeans but also the cultural subjugation of women to men.(84) Few women wielded any form of public power within colonial society and what little they did exercise was mainly dependent on their intimate access to men in positions of authority, such as the mistress of a parish priest.(85) Not only is Seberina able to tap into Hispanic and Christian forms of secular and spiritual power but she uses this new source to give her greater influence outside a male dominated authority structure. Her familiar is male, and, while he does not always exactly do her bidding, she is nonetheless the only means by which he is able to manifest himself to the local community. Moreover, he bears a palo, the symbol of colonial authority at the municipal level and vested in the office of the gobernadorcillo, the most important male figure within her immediate sphere. As Seberina becomes a centre or focal point focal point n. See focus. of an alternative means of accessing power within her village, she, intentionally or otherwise, invests herself with the symbols and trappings of recognised authority. At any event, her activities are increasingly seen as a threat to the male monopolisation Noun 1. monopolisation - domination (of a market or commodity) to the exclusion of others monopolization domination - social control by dominating of power wielded by the gobernadorcillo and ultimately the parish priest. Not that the secular and spiritual were clearly differentiated within her mind: Isac both bears a staff of office and offers her a rosary. In a short period of several months, Seberina comes to exercise a form of influence that a young woman of twenty-two could not hope usually to have in her community. Ultimately, however, she transgresses too many boundaries and is brought low. Beaten and admonished by her husband, denounced by Maestro Luis and imprisoned im·pris·on tr.v. im·pris·oned, im·pris·on·ing, im·pris·ons To put in or as if in prison; confine. [Middle English emprisonen, from Old French emprisoner : en- , assaulted and then abandoned by Isac, Seberina is found by the guard cold and quivering on the floor of her prison cell, a forlorn and rather pathetic figure. Where in all these happenings surrounding the case of Seberina Candelaria at Obando is the Spanish priest? Despite the fact that he has long been considered the most knowledgeable of royal officials, versed in the language and customs of the indigenous peoples through long residence in one locality, he seems a very remote and distant figure: unaware, unless so informed, of the activities of his parishioners; understanding little of the belief systems by which members of his flock made sense and operated in the world about them. While the outward forms of Hispanic power and Christianity may have been integrated into an indigenous cosmology, the priest remained an outsider: a potent symbol, certainly, in much the same way as a sacred grove This article is about a particular sacred grove of the Latter Day Saint movement. For other uses, see Sacred grove. In the Latter Day Saint movement, the Sacred Grove is a forested area near the border of western New York near the home of Joseph Smith, Jr. , an ancestral shrine or a hallowed landmark but external to the daily round of the village. The distance between priest and his congregation only widened in the eighteenth century as the effect of the Enlightenment increasingly influenced European perceptions of supernatural phenomena and witchcraft came to be viewed as more delusional, the product of the mind rather than of magic and the black arts.(86) While the early missionary fathers had decried the foul works of the Devil in the archipelago, Seberina's examiners take a somewhat more 'scientific' view of the affair, one indicative of the extent to which the ideas of the Enlightenment had already penetrated the rural Philippines by 1808. To Fr Casimiro Tembleque, parish priest of Obando, Seberina's familiar is nothing more than "the delusions of a 'weak mind' (fantasia debil) so common to her sex" and he initially counsels her simply to "arm herself with the shield of faith," blesses and admonishes her to hear mass frequently, take communion and recite the rosary. Later, however, when he discovers that the case is well known throughout the locality, he realises firmer action is called for. Even so, he refers to the situation as a "strange case . . . difficult to believe in without such evident proofs" but feels that it "should be dealt with by the full rigour rig·our n. Chiefly British Variant of rigor. rigour or US rigor Noun 1. of the law, since not only does it deal with a loss of faith . . . but its consequences are very prejudicial to public morals and good order."(87) In other words, Seberina should be proceeded against not only because of anxiety about her or her fellow villagers' immortal souls Immortal Souls is a melodic death metal band from Kokkola Finland. For years they were quite unknown due to the fact that their first label Little Rose didn't have enough resources to promote Immortal Souls too well. but because her actions disturb public order within the community! As a more rationalist approach permeated Catholic theology during the nineteenth century, concern over uncovering the demonic practices associated with witches is replaced by a conceptualisation of the Devil as the arch-beguiler, the spinner of deceits and the master of duplicity DUPLICITY, pleading. Duplicity of pleading consists in multiplicity of distinct matter to one and the same thing, whereunto several answers are required. Duplicity may occur in one and the same pleading. against whom the unwary need to be constantly on their guard. As mental delusion supplants witchcraft, the gap between the Spanish priest and his indigenous parishioners, between a system of beliefs imbued with the new ideas "New Ideas" is the debut single by Scottish New Wave/Indie Rock act The Dykeenies. It was first released as a Double A-side with "Will It Happen Tonight?" on July 17, 2006. The band also recorded a video for the track. of the Enlightenment and a native cosmology that has selectively appropriated and incorporated Hispanic and Christian symbols, would only appear to have widened. Conclusion The case of Seberina Candelaria and others like her make the historian more aware of the complexities of writing colonial histories that are unable to penetrate the surface layer of historical representation and fail to reach beyond the level of action to the realm of consciousness. Here, of course, the ground becomes very slippery. James Scott identifies one path through this morass by focusing on what he calls the hidden transcripts or the alternative meanings given to public texts that can cloak a dissonant political culture behind a veil of seeming compliance. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. this mode of analysis, the events that take place in Obando can certainly be interpreted as representative of a latent hostility against a colonial order sustained behind the facade of Christianity: devils, familiars and Spaniards are, after all, one in Seberina's consciousness. And the widespread attendance at the nightly gatherings, the conspiracy of silence Noun 1. conspiracy of silence - a conspiracy not to talk about some situation or event; "there was a conspiracy of silence about police brutality" conspiracy, confederacy - a secret agreement between two or more people to perform an unlawful act that surrounds these activities for months, and the evident isolation and relative impotence of the priest only cast serious doubts over the penetration and effectiveness of Spanish rule in the Philippines after more than two hundred years of colonisation and evangelisation. But there would also appear to be so much more going on here than simply popular defiance at a colonial system: Scott's hidden transcripts seem a useful but somewhat crude analytical device if confined purely to examining the relations between ethnic, racial or class groups in Obando. Seberina's case is not only about domination and the forms of resistance between indigenous peoples and the Spanish but is also about gender relations in her community. Possession by a demonic familiar grants her the opportunity to manipulate an alternative source of influence outside the male dominated authority structure that was not usually available to women of her age and position in that society. Ultimately it will also create a backlash that overwhelms and then crushes her. However, in the final analysis, the case of Seberina Candelaria is about how power is abstracted in a rural community during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Philippines. And here, perhaps, is its most valuable historical insight. Far from overturning the previous belief systems, it suggests that the forms and symbols of Christianity had themselves been appropriated and incorporated within a pre-Hispanic mythology and tradition of mainly female priestesses. The result was neither wholly indigenous nor wholly exotic but the formation of a hybrid cosmology. Moreover, this cosmology was, in some ways, even further removed from the ideas of the Enlightenment than the Christianity of the early missionary fathers, who had at least shared with their converts more of a belief in the supernatural means of manipulating reality. Nor is it possible to gauge just how commonplace such hybrid cosmologies were given the relative paucity of the historical record for the period. Jerry Bentley argues that the simple effort to communicate any beliefs and values across cultural boundaries "almost inevitably entailed a certain amount of syncretism syn·cre·tism n. 1. Reconciliation or fusion of differing systems of belief, as in philosophy or religion, especially when success is partial or the result is heterogeneous. 2. , since the explanation of foreign concepts required some degree of comparison and assimilatation to familiar ideas."(88) If such is the case, then the encounter between Christianity and indigenous belief systems did not involve the wholesale acceptance of an alien religious system by the native populations of the archiplegao, but rather its selective adoption and adaption adaption see adaptation. in which the former's original elements were fractured, restated in new terms See suggestions for new terms. , endowed with different meanings, and assembled in a new way that made sense and gave significance to the latter's cultural point of view.(89) Colonial society, then, may have been full of 'Seberinas' whose existence, however, remained hidden to all but the most discerning among Spanish religious and secular authorities. Whether Seberina Candelaria herself was a bored young woman seeking local notoriety and importance within her community, a psychotic who heard voices, or a latter-day priestess in the time-honoured tradition of the babaylanes is a matter of personal and, perhaps, cultural interpretation. However, not only does her case permit the historian a rare glimpse into the inner world of a young woman and the imagination of her fellow villagers alive nearly two hundred years ago, but it also raises serious doubts about the extent of Spanish control over the rural Philippines. Department of History Private Bag 92019 Auckland, New Zealand New Zealand (zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. ENDNOTES 1. Greg Bankoff, "Big Fish in Small Ponds: the Exercise of Power in a Nineteenth Century Philippine Municipality," Modern Asian Studies Asian studies is a field in cultural studies that is concerned with the Asian peoples, their cultures and languages. Within the Asian sphere, Asian studies combines aspects of sociology, and cultural anthropology to study cultural phenomena in Asian traditional and industrial 4, 26 (1992): 679-700; Glenn May, "Civic Ritual and Political Reality: Municipal Elections in the Late-19th-Century Philippines" in A Past Revisited (Quezon City Quezon City, city (1990 pop. 1,669,776), former capital of the Republic of the Philippines, central Luzon, a part of the Manila metropolitan area. A suburb of Manila, taken separately it would be the most populous city in the Philippines. , 1987) pp. 30-52; Norman Owen, "The Principalia in Philippine History: Kabikolan, 1790-1898," Philippines Studies 22, 3-4 (1974); and Eliodoro Robles Robles is a common surname in the Spanish language meaning oaks, and may refer to:
2. Greg Bankoff, "Bandits, Banditry and Landscapes of Crime in 19th Century Philippines," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Southeast Asian Studies refers to research and education on the language, culture, and history of the different states and ethnic groups of Southeast Asia. External links
3. James Scott, Weapons of the Weak. Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven New Haven, city (1990 pop. 130,474), New Haven co., S Conn., a port of entry where the Quinnipiac and other small rivers enter Long Island Sound; inc. 1784. Firearms and ammunition, clocks and watches, tools, rubber and paper products, and textiles are among the many , 1985) p. 29. 4. Michael Adas, "From Footdragging to Flight: The Evasive History of Peasant Avoidance Protest in South and South-East Asia South-East Asia n → le Sud-Est asiatique South-East Asia south n → Südostasien nt South-East Asia n → ," The Journal of Peasant Studies 13, 2 (1986): 64-86. 5. Brian Fegan, "'Tenants' Non-Violent Resistance to Landowner Claims in a Central Luzon Central Luzon region contains the largest plain of the Philippines, and produces most of the country's rice supply. That is why it is called the "Rice Bowl" of the Philippines. Its provinces are: Aurora, Bataan, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Zambales. Village," The Journal of Peasant Studies 13, 2 (1986): 87-106 and Benedict Kerkvliet, "Everyday Resistance to Injustice in a Philippine Village," The Journal of Peasant Studies 13, 2 (1986): 107-123. 6. James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance. Hidden Transcripts (New Haven and London, 1990). 7. James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance p. 32. 8. Vincente Rafael, Contracting Colonialism. Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule (Ithaca and London, 1988) and Reynaldo Ileto, Pasyon And Revolution: Popular Movements In The Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City, 1979). 9. These trial transcripts comprise the initial statements made in secret by Seberina Candelaria and her fellow villagers before the ecclesiastical tribunal held in Obando, that tribunal's writs and orders, a summary of the case referring the matter to a higher court, an accompanying letter from the parish priest, and the evidence of the spiritual interrogators in the convent where Seberina is ultimately confined. However, it is impossible to determine whether these initial statements were actually the product of interrogation interrogation In criminal law, process of formally and systematically questioning a suspect in order to elicit incriminating responses. The process is largely outside the governance of law, though in the U.S. or simple declarations. 10. A more graduated picture of witchcraft is presented by Stuart Clark Stuart Rupert Clark (born 28 September 1975, Sutherland, New South Wales) is an Australian Test cricketer who plays for the New South Wales Blues and Hampshire. He bowls right-arm fast medium deliveries. who views changes in such beliefs in terms of their relationship to the wider intellectual life of Europe. Clark argues that the rise of demonology de·mon·ol·o·gy n. 1. The study of demons. 2. Belief in or worship of demons. 3. A list or catalog of one's enemies: to intellectual prominence from the middle of the fifteenth century was closely connected to the way in which belief in witchcraft was related to how science, history, religion and politics were regarded. Its subsequent decline in the eighteenth century reflected its loss of intellectual appeal as other means of depicting the world came more to the fore. Stuart Clark, Thinking With Demons Demons See also devil; evil; ghosts; hell; spirits and spiritualism. ademonist one who denies the existence of the devil or demons. bogyism, bogeyism recognition of the existence of demons and goblins. . The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western Europe and its first colonies which spans the two centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution. (Oxford, 1997). 11. Stuart Clark, Thinking With Demons pp. 112-113. 12. This work was compiled by two German inquisitors, Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Institoris, subsequent to the papal bull Noun 1. papal bull - a formal proclamation issued by the pope (usually written in antiquated characters and sealed with a leaden bulla) bull decree, fiat, edict, rescript, order - a legally binding command or decision entered on the court record (as if of Innocent VIII Innocent VIII, 1432–92, pope (1484–92), a Genoese named Giovanni Battista Cibo; successor of Sixtus IV. He was made a cardinal in 1473. His close friend, Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (later Pope Julius II), largely directed the papal affairs. , Summis desiderantes effectibus, authorising the persecution of witches in certain dioceses in 1484. 13. Norman Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , Europe's Inner Demons. The Demonization de·mon·ize tr.v. de·mon·ized, de·mon·iz·ing, de·mon·iz·es 1. To turn into or as if into a demon. 2. To possess by or as if by a demon. 3. of Christians in Medieval Christendom (Pimlico, 1993); Julio Baroja, "Witchcraft and Catholic Theology"in Bengt Ankarloo and Gustav Henningsen (eds.) Early Modern European Witchcraft. Centres and Peripheries (Oxford, 1990) pp. 19-43; and G.R. Quaiffe, Godly god·ly adj. god·li·er, god·li·est 1. Having great reverence for God; pious. 2. Divine. god Zeal and Furious Rage. The Witch in Early Modern Europe (London and Sydney, 1987). 14. Margaret Murray Margaret Alice Murray (Calcutta, India, July 13 1863- November 13 1963) was a prominent British anthropologist and Egyptologist. She was well known in academic circles for scholarly contributions to Egyptology and the study of folklore which led to the theory of a pan-European, , The Witch-Cult in Western Europe Western Europe The countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). . A Study in Anthropology (Oxford, 1921) p. 12. 15. Alan Macfarlane MacFarlane or Macfarlane is a surname shared by:
The Stuart period was an important stage of English history. It represented the time frame from James I of England (or James VI of Scotland) all the way to the reign of Queen Anne. James I came to the throne in 1603. (London, 1970) p. 10 and Lucy Mair, 1969. Witchcraft (London, 1969) p. 229. Subsequently Carlo Ginzburg, while remaining critical of Murray's thesis, recognises a distinction between belief in witchcraft and its practice and proceeds to document the existence of an ecstatic agrarian cult in Fruili, Italy during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in which men and women were compelled to go forth 'in spirit' four times a year to battle against witches for the fertility of their fields. Carlo Ginzburg, The Night Battles. Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London, 1983). 16. C.W. Watson and Roy Ellen (eds.), Understanding Witchcraft and Sorcery in Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1993) p. 3. 17. Richard Lieban, Cebuano Sorcery. Malign Magic in the Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles Los Angeles (lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. , 1967). 18. Gustav Henningsen, The Witches' Advocate. Basque Witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition Spanish Inquisition harsh tribunal established in 1478 to dispose of heretics, Protestants, and Jews. [Eur. Hist.: Collier’s, X, 259] See : Persecution (1609-1614) (Reno, 1980) pp. 22-23. 19. Fernando Cervantes, The Devil in the New World. The Impact of Diabolism di·ab·o·lism n. 1. Dealings with or worship of the devil or demons; sorcery. 2. Devilish conduct or character. di·ab in New Spain New Spain: see Mexico, country. (New Haven and London, 1994) p. 25. 20. Diego Aduarte Diego Aduarte (1570-1637) Spanish historian, born at Saragossa. He was a missionary to the Philippine Islands and in 1632 was made Prior of Manila, where he died in 1637. , "Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores, Manila, 1640" in Emma Blair and Alexander Robertson Sir Alexander Robertson DCM was a British police officer. He served as Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis from 1958 to 1961. Robertson was a Commander in the Metropolitan Police when he was appointed Assistant Commissioner "A", in charge of administration and (eds.), The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 (Mandaluyong, 1973) volume 31, p. 73. 21. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General de los Religiosos Descalzos del Orden . . . S. Augustin, Madrid, 1681" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 21, p. 202; Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica, Madrid, 1663" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 40, pp. 69-75; and Pedro Careen, "Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, Roma, 1604" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 12, pp. 264-265. There is also evidence of a belief in some rudimentary concept of a creator god variously called Bathala, Laon or Macaptan. Ibid. p. 263 and Miguel de Loarca, "Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas, Arrevalo, 1582" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 5, pp. 133-134. 22. Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" p. 74; Diego Aduarte, "Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario" volume 30, p. 289; Diego de Bobadilla, "Relation of the Pilipinas Islands by a Religious Who Lived There For Eighteen Years, 1640" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 29, p. 285; and Pedro Careen, "Relacion" pp. 206, 268, 272-273. 23. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General" p. 202; Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" p. 71; Diego de Bobadilla, "Relation of the Pilipinas Islands" p. 285; and Antonio de Morga Doctor Antonio de Morga Sánchez Garay (1559, Seville, Spain—July 21, 1636) was a lawyer and a high-ranking colonial official in the Philippines, New Spain and Peru. He was also a historian. , "Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, Mexico, 1609" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 16, p. 131. 24. Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" pp. 74-75; Diego Aduarte, "Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario" volume 30, p. 286; Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 269; and "Resume of Documents 1521-1569" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 2, p. 139. Other contemporary commentators note that officiates were frequently also male or asog, effeminate ef·fem·i·nate adj. 1. Having qualities or characteristics more often associated with women than men. See Synonyms at female. 2. Characterized by weakness and excessive refinement. men possibly transvestites. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General" p. 203 and Alcina as quoted in Evelyn Cullamar, Babaylanism in Negros: 1896-1907 (Quezon City, 1986) p. 18. 25. Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" p. 77; Diego de Bobadilla, "Relation of the Pilipinas Islands" p. 286; and Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 270. 26. Pedro Careen, "Relacion" pp. 269-270. 27. Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 269 and Juan de Plasencia, "Customs of the Tagalogs, Manila, 1589" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 7, pp. 190-191. 28. Diego Aduarte, "Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario" volume 30, p. 286 and Juan Mendoza, "History of the Great Kingdom of China, Madrid, 1586" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 6, pp. 147, 191. 29. Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" pp. 75-76; Diego de Bobadilla, "Relation of the Pilipinas Islands" p. 286; and Miguel de Loarca, "Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas" p. 133. 30. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General" p. 203. 31. Juan de Plasencia, "Customs of the Tagalogs" p. 190. 32. Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" p. 76. 33. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General" p. 207 and Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 269. 34. Antonio de Morga, "Sucesos" p. 131 and Miguel de Loarca, "Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas" p. 163. 35. Pedro Colin, "Labor Evangelica" p. 77. 36. Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 271. 37. Juan Mendoza, "History" p. 147 and "Resume 1521-1569" p. 139. 38. Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 263. 39. Diego Aduarte, "Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario" volume 30, p. 296 and volume 31, p. 73. 40. Diego Serrano, "Edict of Fray Diego Garcia Serrano. Archbishop of the Philippines, 1622" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 21, p. 60. 41. Pedro Careen, "Relacion" p. 271. 42. Tomas Ortiz, "Practica del Ministerio, 1713-42" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 43, p. 106. 43. Murillo Velarde, "Historia de Philipinas, 1674-83" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 38, p. 88. 44. Diego Serrano, "Edict" p. 61. 45. "Historia del Santissimo Rosario, Manila, 1742." in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 43, pp. 52-53. 46. Murillo Velarde "Historia de Philipinas" p. 93. 47. "Santissimo Rosario" p. 52. 48. Antonio Mozo, "Later Augustinian and Dominican Missions, Madrid, 1763" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 48, pp. 113-114. 49. The article was included in the document series compiled by Emma Blair and Alexander Robertson with the following notation from the authors: "It is deserving of a place in this series, as showing what is actually believed at the present time among some of the ignorant Filipinos." Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 43, p. 312. 50. Jose Nunez, "Present Beliefs and Superstitions in Luzon, 1905" in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands volume 43, pp. 310-319. Another Manila newspaper, La Democracia, carried an item on 29 August 1903 reporting the hanging of men accused of killing a witch. 51. Richard Lieban, Cebuano Sorcery. 52. The vicario foraneo was invested with both executive and judicial powers, though his authority in criminal matters was limited to a preliminary investigation of the case and the preparation of a sumario or initial report for referral to the diocesan court of the bishop or archbishop that acted as the court of first instance in all matters that fell within ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Thus the Philippines was divided between four, later five, tribunals: the archdiocese of Manila, and the dioceses of Nueva Segovia, Nueva Caceres, Cebu, and subsequently Jaro. However, the prelate did not exercise jurisdiction himself but deputised a vicario general from among the diocesan chapter to act as his representative. This court was vested with the authority to investigate, punish, excommunicate ex·com·mu·ni·cate tr.v. ex·com·mu·ni·cat·ed, ex·com·mu·ni·cat·ing, ex·com·mu·ni·cates 1. To deprive of the right of church membership by ecclesiastical authority. 2. or absolve ab·solve tr.v. ab·solved, ab·solv·ing, ab·solves 1. To pronounce clear of guilt or blame. 2. To relieve of a requirement or obligation. 3. a. To grant a remission of sin to. both crimes and sins, and its sentences were definitive though appealable. Greg Bankoff, In Verbo Sacerdotis: the Judicial Power of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth Century Philippines (Darwin, 1992) pp. 8-9. 53. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria N[atural] de Obando por Sociedad con un Diablo Familiar," Archive of the Archdiocese of Manila, Asuntos Criminales, Box 1808-1819, file 1808-1811A, pp. 1-4. 54. The sementera would often be at a considerable distance from the family house and those working in it might spend several nights there, especially at certain times of the agricultural cycle such as before the harvest. 55. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" pp. 17-18. 56. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" pp. 4-16. 57. There is some difficulty in establishing the extent of Seberina's healing powers as the Spanish text repeatedly uses the verb hilotearse and the noun hiloteo for which no satisfactory translation has yet become available. The context, however, in which the words occur strongly suggest that the meaning has to do with restoring health. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 18. 58. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 18. 59. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 9. 60. The fiscal or fiscalillo was an ecclesiastical official introduced into the Philippines from Mexico during the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century whose duties combined those of a sacristan sac·ris·tan n. 1. One who is in charge of a sacristy. 2. A sexton. [Middle English, from Medieval Latin sacrist and religious secretary. Unofficially, however, they acted as the moral guardians of their villages, admonishing ad·mon·ish tr.v. ad·mon·ished, ad·mon·ish·ing, ad·mon·ish·es 1. To reprove gently but earnestly. 2. To counsel (another) against something to be avoided; caution. 3. irregular behaviour in the community, confirming that parishioners had valid reasons for not attending mass and checking that people observed Christian tenets in their daily lives. They were also the priest's henchmen and chief advisers on all matters local, inflicting corporal punishment corporal punishment, physical chastisement of an offender. At one extreme it includes the death penalty (see capital punishment), but the term usually refers to punishments like flogging, mutilation, and branding. Until c. or other penances on those deemed to merit such correction and providing what information might be required on the character and reputations of parishioners. Traditionally the office was held by the principalia or prominent members of the community. Greg Bankoff, "Big Fish" pp. 693-695 and Greg Bankoff, In Verbo Sacerdotis pp. 23-24. 61. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" pp. 13-14, 18-19. 62. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 15. The currency situation was fairly chaotic during the 19th century with coins of the Dos Mundos variety, bust-portraits of the later Bourbon kings, those of the newly independent Latin American states (especially the Mexican peso) as well as those of Spain all in circulation at any one time. In addition, decimalisation n. 1. same as decimalization. Noun 1. decimalisation - the act of changing to a decimal system; "the decimalization of British currency" decimalization was instigated in 1858 adding still further to the complexity of working out the value of coins in daily use. There were eight reales to every peso. Angelita de Legarda, Piloncitos to Pesos. A Brief History of Coinage in the Philippines (Manila, 1976) pp. 17-46. 63. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 18. 64. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 9. 65. "Santissimo Rosario" p. 52. 66. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" pp. 24-26. 67. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 25. 68. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 26. 69. Antonio Mozo, "Later Augustinian and Dominican Missions" p. 115 and Tomas Ortiz, "Practica del Ministerio" p. 109. 70. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 10. 71. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General" p. 203. 72. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 13. 73. Luis de Jesus, "Historia General" p. 203 and Juan de Plasencia, "Customs of the Tagalogs" p. 190. 74. "Resume 1521-1569" p. 139. 75. Dieter Bartels, "Politicians and Magicians: Power, Adaptive Strategies, and Syncretism in the Central Moluccas" in Gloria Davis (ed.), What is Modern Indonesian Culture? (Madison, 1976), p. 283. 76. Antonio Mozo, "Later Augustinian and Dominican Missions" p. 115 and Tomas Ortiz, "Practica del Ministerio" p. 107. The tianak or patianak (also referred to as dwende) in Tagalog is synonymous with the Bikol patyanak, the fusion of an untimely discharged human foetus and a tiny black bird whose mournful mourn·ful adj. 1. Feeling or expressing sorrow or grief; sorrowful. 2. Causing or suggesting sadness or melancholy: the mournful sound of a train whistle. wailing resembles that of an infant, and the Cebuano mantiyanak, a supernatural being of a brownish hue who preys on new-born infants. Leo Leo, in astronomy Leo [Lat.,=the lion], northern constellation lying S of Ursa Major and on the ecliptic (apparent path of the sun through the heavens) between Cancer and Virgo; it is one of the constellations of the zodiac. English, Tagalog-English Dictionary (Manila, 1986); John Wolf, A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan (Manila, 1972) p. 670; and Merito Espinas, "A Critical Study of the Ibalong, The Bikol Folk Epic Fragment," Unitas 41, 2 (1968): 183. A similar phenomenon is known as an aswang in the Ilocos. Contemporary representations of these sprites Noun 1. sprites - atmospheric electricity (lasting 10 msec) appearing as globular flashes of red (pink to blood-red) light rising to heights of 60 miles (sometimes seen together with elves) red sprites can be seen in the popular Tagalog movies Anak ni Janice and Shake, Rattle and Roll. 77. Tomas Ortiz, "Practica del Ministerio" p. 107. 78. John Wolf, Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan p. 670 and Merito Espinas, "A Critical Study" p. 183. 79. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 17. 80. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 17. 81. Norman Cohen, Europe's Inner Demons pp. 25-26. 82. Dieter Bartels, "Politicians and Magicians" pp. 284-285. 83. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 12. 84. Greg Bankoff, "Households of Ill-Repute: Rape, Prostitution and Marriage in the Nineteenth Century Philippines," Pilipinas 17, Fall (1991): 35-49. 85. Greg Bankoff, "Big Fish" pp. 695-697. 86. Robin Briggs, Witches & Neighbours. The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft (1996) pp. 378-380. 87. "Causa Contra Seberina Candelaria" p. 24. 88. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters. Cross-Cultural Contacts in Pre-Modern Times (New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of 1993) pp. 15-16. 89. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters p. 16. |
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