D-day: the great invasion: sixty years ago this spring, Allied troops stormed the beaches of France in a heroic effort to free Europe from Germany's grip.

On Tuesday, June 6, 1944, 156,000 American, British, and Canadian troops, along with Polish, French, and other Allied soldiers, landed on the beaches of Normandy, on the northern coast of France, and changed the world.

A few years earlier, in 1939 and 1940, Adolf Hitler's armies had over run Poland, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, France, and North Africa. The Nazis installed Fascist regimes, put their enemies in concentration camps, and tried to exterminate Europe's Jews, whom Hitler blamed for Germany's ills, including its defeat in World War I.

Hitler created alliances with Italy and Japan to form what was known as the Axis. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the British and Soviets were left to fight Germany alone, until Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii, on December 7. The U.S. then entered the war ha both Asia and Europe, fighting alongside Allied forces to liberate Europe, North Africa, and Asia from the grip of the Axis powers.

Defeating Hitler's vast military machine required an invasion of epic proportions, and on D-Day, 60 years ago this spring, Allied troops threw themselves against the German defenses and began the campaign that--with Soviet forces pressing in from the east--would result in Germany's surrender.

OPERATION OVERLOAD

Some 73,000 young Americans, mostly draftees, were among those who hit the beaches or parachuted or flew in on gliders on D-Day as part of the vast Allied operation called "Overlord." It was one of the great military feats of all time, a gripping human drama that newspapers, books, and movies like Saving Private Ryan have been telling ever since.

"At daybreak, Anglo-American forces dropped from the skies in Normandy, swarmed up on the beaches from thousands of landing craft, and renewed the battle for France and for Europe," The New York Times reported on June 6.

The risks were enormous. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, had already delayed the start of the operation by 24 hours because of a fierce storm. German defenses on the beaches with Allied code names like Utah, Omaha, and Sword--were so formidable that Eisenhower prepared a note before the operation started to use if the plan failed. "lf any blame or fault attaches to the attempt it is mine alone," read the scrap of paper, which stayed in "Ike's" wallet unused and can be seen today at his presidential library in Abilene, Kan., his childhood home.

A few journalists went in with the invading troops, but communications were slow. The only eyewitnesses quoted in The Times the day after the invasion were Allied pilots who had flown bombing missions over the beaches. Lt. Roy L. Saux of Gretna, La., told a reporter: "There they were, marching in to die, just as if they were going to a ball game."

'INCESSANT SHELL FIRE'

The troops made their way ashore and began fighting their way inland, to join up with paratroopers. "Below little villages, the Americans were under incessant shell fire," Larry Meier, a radio network correspondent, reported in a dispatch in The Times on June 8. "As some of the Americans worked their way up the bluffs or river valleys, succeeding waves kept pouring in." Berlin Radio reported fighting all along the northern coast of France, from the tip of the Normandy peninsula and up the English Channel to the Belgian border.

By the thousands, the invading troops, most in their early 20s, fought, drowned, were blown up by mines, or were killed by murderous fire from German guns above them. Thousands of others behind them walked into the face of death and fought their way up the bluffs beyond the beaches and, step by step, turned the tide against the Germans.

"These young people, not much older than high school, were faced with the greatest challenge, physical and otherwise, of their lives, and responded to it," says military historian Rick Atkinson.

The day after the Normandy landing, the Allies liberated their first French town. The Times published a dispatch by a United Press correspondent datelined "Bayeux, Allied Front Lint, Normandy, June 7 (delayed)." "Allied troops streamed into this historic town at noon today, the first community of France to be freed from the Germans, and its people went wild with joy, crying 'On to Paris!'

"The people danced in the streets; they clutched eagerly at the troops; they tucked roses, carnations, and violets in the helmet of every passing Yank, Tommy and Canadian."

MEETING AT THE ELBE 

The Allies, aided by French resistance forces, drove the Germans from their strongholds, town by town, road by road, and fulfilled the directive of Eisenhower's commanders: "You will enter the continent of Europe and, in conjunction with the other Allied nations, undertake operations aimed at the heart of Germany and the destruction of her armed forces."

Paris was liberated in August, and on April 25, 1945, Allied troops, coming from the west, met up at the Elbe river near Torgau, Germany, with Soviet soldiers who had fought the Germans back from Stalingrad and Moscow on the eastern front. And at midnight, on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day, for Victory in Europe), Germany's surrender brought an end to the war in Europe. (The war against Japan would last until August.)

PARTITIONING GERMANY

The partition of Germany between the Soviets and the Western Allies and Soviet domination of Eastern Europe alter the war lasted more than 40 years. Europe's democratic reunification following Communism's collapse in Eastern Europe in 1990 was, in a sense, the fulfillment of the promise of freedom made by the soldiers who died on the beaches of Normandy,

In the American Cemetery overlooking Omaha Beach are the graves of 9,386 U.S. soldiers killed on or after D-Day. The centerpiece of a memorial to them and 1,557 others missing in action is a bronze statue, a symbol of what they represented: "Spirit of American Youth."

Massive Allied Invasion of France Throws Germany Back Toward Eventual Defeat

DISCUSSION QUESTION

Some in the German military wanted to negotiate an end to the war before their country's defeat. Were the Allies correct to demand unconditional surrender?

TEACHING OBJECTIVES

To help students understand the events and the significance of D-Day, one of the greatest military invasions in history.

CLASSROOM STRATEGIES

BACKGROUND/MAP STUDY: One of the miracles of D-Day was the fact that the Allies were able to keep the date and location of the invasion secret. Tell students that one of the keys to this deception was the stationing of large numbers of decoy troops in an area north of the actual embarkation, at the point where England and France are in closest proximity. Even after D-Day, Hider believed that the "real" invasion would come from this point.

CRITICAL THINKING: The article reports that General Eisenhower wrote a note in which he accepted blame if the invasion had failed. Suppose the invasion had failed. Have students do a little brainstorming. Ask them to identify events or mishaps that could have caused the invasion to fail.

The article also reports that most of the American troops who hit the beaches were draftees. Ask students how they would respond to a draft notice. What factors would justify drafting young people to fight a war? Is the current volunteer system sufficient for U.S. defense in the midst of the terrorist threat?

WRITING: Tell students to assume their community is holding a 60th anniversary commemoration of D-Day, Their job is to write a brief essay, "What D-Day Means to Americans Today," to be read at the ceremony. Students should include some specifics from the article in their essays. As an alternative, you might have students write a class letter to the editor of their local newspaper about the significance of D-Day. FAST FACT: The article notes that Hider installed Fascist regimes in conquered lands. Tell students that Fascism places the state above individuals, employs an autocratic government, often promotes racism, and tolerates no opposition. WEB WATCH: www.ddaymuseum.org is the Web site of The National D-Day Museum in New Orleans. Look for "D-Day by the Numbers." www.ddaymuseum.co.uk/faq.htm#troops is the Web site of the D-Day Museum in Portsmouth, England. This site provides FAQs, statistics, and links to other sites.

Upfront QUIZ 4

DIRECTIONS: Circle the letter next to the best answer.

1. Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler blamed Germany's ills, including its defeat in World War I (1914-1918), on

a Europe's Jews. b the United States. c France d Great Britain.

2. Nazi Germany created an alliance with Italy and Japan called the

a Grand Fascist Alliance. b Union of the Victorious. c Axis. d Bund.

3. While American, British, Canadian, and other Allied forces attacked Germany from the west, the Germans were attacked, from the east by

a Czechoslovakia. b Austria. c Turkey. d the Soviet Union.

4. At dawn on June 6, 1944, British, American, and Canadian forces landed on beaches in an area of France called

a Provence. b Normandy. c Ile-de-France. d Lorraine.

5. The original D-Day had to be postponed because

a of a major storm. b Germany had learned about the planned date. c Germany had learned about the site of the invasion. d there was a break in the Allies' supply lines.

6. The Allied victory over Germany did not bring tranquillity to Europe. For decades after the end of World War II,

a revolutions swept many European countries. b border wars erupted between many countries. c Europe was split between democracy in the West and Communism in the East. d relations between Western Europe and the U.S. remained tense.

ANSWER KEY

The skills exercises on pages 4, 5, and 6 of this teaching guide are for you to photocopy and hand out in class.

1. (a) Europe's Jews.

2. (c) Axis.

3. (d) the Soviet Union.

4. (b) Normandy.

5. (a) of a major storm.

6. (c) Europe was split between democracy in the West and Communism in the East.

Craig R. Whitney is an assistant managing editor and former European diplomatic correspondent of The New York Times.