Current challenges of kindergarten (Yochien) education in Japan: toward balancing children's autonomy and teachers' intention.

"Japanese students are falling lower on the international ladder of academic ability." (Asahi Shinbun Newspaper, December 12, 2004).

Many education critics, teachers, and parents have lamented the recent poor achievement scores of Japanese school-age children, and have sought the reasons for the decline. Some critics, including the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, and Science and Technology, blame the practice known as yutori-kyoiku (literally translated as "relaxed-education"), initiated in 2002, which cut the school week from six days to five days and slashed curriculum content by 30 percent. They claim these changes led children to lose their motivation and discipline for school work. They strongly recommend that the Japanese school curriculum return to teaching basic education contents rigorously and revert to a six-days-a-week school schedule.

At first glance; this debate does not seem to affect kindergarten or preschool education directly. However, some critics make kindergarten the scapegoat for poor school performance, saying that kindergarten education overemphasizes free play. Such free play, they say, encourages children to become self-centered and causes classroom disruptions, and that when they enter 1st grade they cannot stay in their seats to listen to the teacher's instruction (Oda, 2003). What these critics ignore is that the push by some kindergartens to teach young children the 3R's resembles the rigid elementary school curriculum. Some parents rush to bring their children to cram schools to get ready for private elementary school exams. Many teachers at the kindergarten level are at a loss to define what is appropriate practice for young children before entering elementary school. Kindergarten curriculum developers also wonder what would be the best curriculum for the children. This is the time for professionals in the field of early childhood education to evaluate the development of Japanese kindergarten education, and seek the right curriculum to respond to children's needs and interests.

Thus, this article provides an overview of the history of kindergarten education in Japan, focusing on the development of curriculum content and practice. Then, the authors illustrate the current Japanese kindergarten curriculum and prospects for the future.

Dawn of Kindergarten Education in Japan: Late 19th Century to Pre-War

The first kindergarten in Japan was established in 1876, attached to Tokyo Women's Normal School (now named Ochanomizu Women's University). Curriculum and practice were influenced by Froebel's education philosophy, especially his use of the Gifts. Although Froebel stressed the importance of play and songs, most educators in Japan emphasized the use of the Gifts as a tool for instructing young children. Most practices were teacher-directed, emphasizing the 3R's and the "manner for living" (e.g., bowing, putting things back on a shell washing hands, etc.), responding to demands from largely upper-class families.

However, when the number of kindergartens had grown, some early childhood educators began questioning the Froebelian-oriented kindergarten practice and the curriculum similar to that of elementary schools. One of the leading educators to criticize such policies, Sozo Kurahashi (1882-1955), decried the "Froebelian orthodoxy," taking a set of the Gifts from a shelf and mixing them up to convert them into a set of simple, modern wooden blocks (Oda, 2005).

Kurahashi described his education philosophy as "everyday life-oriented." He believed that teachers must facilitate children's inclination to play, insisting that educators and parents must release children from the constraints of the typical elementary school system, and instead to begin with schooling that is derived from children's everyday life experiences (Kurahashi, 1954; Moriue, 1984). The core of practice, Kurahashi believed, is to be "play oriented." The role of the teacher is not to teach children what to do directly, but rather to guide every child when she/he needs guidance in order for the child's play to be enriched. He developed the synthetic curriculum, which establishes a reciprocal relationship between children's free play and the teacher's guidance (Sakamoto, 1976).

From Life-Oriented Practice to Subject-Oriented Practice: After the War

Although the practice at many Japanese kindergarten began to reflect Kurahashi's education philosophy, World War II interrupted this shift; in fact, the Kindergarten Abolition Law was enacted in 1944. During the war, the focus in schools turned to singing patriotic songs or chanting for victory (Yukawa, 2003).

Because of the war, many children were orphaned. Many kindergartens reopened independently to help and provide children programs for their well-being, and U.S. occupation forces began an initiative to rebuild the Japanese education system (Blackwood & Heffernan, 1988). Chapter I of the School Education Law, enacted in 1947, reads: "The Japanese school system contains elementary schools, lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools, universities, and kindergartens" (Yukawa, 2003). For the first time, kindergarten officially became a part of the public schooling system. The Child Welfare Law also was enacted, formally recognizing child care centers. Ironically, these two laws marked the beginning of a split within the field of early childhood education; kindergarten was under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, and child care centers were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and Welfare.

Although kindergarten was officially recognized as a part of the public schooling system, many still did not view it so. To heighten awareness of the importance of early schooling and the new curriculum, the Monbusho, the Ministry of Education, published Hoiku-Yoryo ("The Curriculum Guidelines for Preschool") in 1948. It was intended not only as a guideline for child care centers and kindergartens, but also as an aid for families in raising their children.

Hoiku-Yoryo was developed under the supervision of Helen Heffernan, an American officer at the CIE (Civil Information and Education Section), who presented a kindergarten curriculum to Japanese members of the Committee on Kindergarten Education. The Heffernan curriculum depicts the everyday life of kindergarten fully, explaining what actually happens in kindergarten and how children and teachers interact. The guidelines did not divide a day in many parts or periods. Indeed, the basic idea resembled Kurahashi's "everyday life orientation." That is, the practice emphasized "free-play" or "no rigid" schedules.

With the signing of a peace treaty in 1951, Japan returned to being an independent country. The efforts to formulate a coherent education system, from kindergarten to upper secondary school, had begun. In 1952, kindergarten educators were charged to develop their own curriculum guidelines to parallel the Elementary School Course of Study. Pilot kindergarten curriculum guidelines were developed in 1956, but were not legally binding.

At the time, some educators argued that the guidelines should be called Yochien Gakushu Shido Yoryo ("Kindergarten Course of Study"). The title, however, was not adopted. The term Yoryo (Guidelines) was used, reflecting the belief that because young children develop differently from one another, and because of their incomplete development, practice should emphasize their natural, everyday lives (Oda, 2001).

The guidelines that succeeded those established by Kurahashi, and then Heffernan, maintained the emphasis on everyday life-oriented education. Since the 1956 guidelines, the curriculum has been divided into six areas (health, social, nature, language, music/rhythm, and art/drawing/craft), leading many people to perceive kindergarten as a preparation for elementary school education. Areas of the guidelines contained language that appeared authoritarian, such as "have children do" or "make children understand" (Oda, 2003).

The creation of the six areas made early childhood educators aware of kindergarten's relationship to the elementary school. At the same time, early childhood educators moved away from Kurahashi"s education philosophy of constructing a curriculum that guided children based on play and theme-based activities. Rather, early childhood educators began to view the six areas as subjects and to emphasize providing specific activities designed to help children acquire specific knowledge and skills. Although kindergarten educators still paid lip service to stressing children's everyday activities, reducing the curriculum into six areas essentially converted the everyday life-oriented curriculum into the subject matter-oriented curriculum of the elementary school.

The Late 1980s: A Move Toward Child-Emergent Activities

As Japan's economy grew strong, some parents began to think that it would be better to send their children to a better kindergarten, even if it was far away from their home, instead of bringing their child to the neighborhood kindergarten. In response, in the late 1980s, some early childhood teachers argued for revising the curriculum guidelines, as they had not been updated since 1964.

The Ministry of Education established "the Research Committees on Kindergarten Guidelines," and conducted a nation-wide survey focusing on kindergarten practice, and on instructional methods. The results showed that some kindergartens provided inappropriate practice that did not follow the original intention of kindergarten education, which was to provide children playful and enjoyable experiences rather than goal-oriented activities or purpose-oriented curriculum. Moreover, the results of the study pointed out that focusing on teaching children letters and numbers does not meet the fundamental idea of kindergarten education. The Committee issued a strong warning against a subject matter-oriented curriculum and skill-centered instruction.

In 1989, the results of the study led to the revision of the Kindergarten Curriculum Guidelines. The goal of the revision was to move away from a subject-oriented practice toward one that values each child's characteristics and capabilities. The fundamental theme of the revised standards was that "the basic idea of kindergarten education is to educate young children through their environment." Providing suitable everyday life experiences for young children became the foundation for practice. The aim of kindergarten was now defined as "nurturing emotion, will, and attitudes as foundation of a zest for living that is expected to be developed by the time children leave kindergarten." The number of curricular areas were lowered from six to five (health, human relationships, environment, language, and expression).

The five areas were considered to be ways to view children's development. While development should be understood comprehensively, by focusing on isolated areas one could examine whether and how each area is related to other areas. The guidelines further stated that "kindergarten is designed for achieving goals through concrete activities that [allow] children.., to manipulate their environment" (Monbusho, 1989). So, practice has shifted from "teacher-directed" activities to "child-centered" activities.

The Late 1990s: Tension Between Children's Autonomy and Teachers' Intention

Ironically, some preschool teachers had interpreted "caring for individual children" and "intentional education" independently without seeking continuity of the two. Some teachers practice with a belief that adhering to "intentional education" in kindergarten education meant placing too much responsibility on the children themselves. However, in practice, misconceptions about instructing and teaching have spread (e.g., "teachers should not teach or give any instruction to children" or "teachers should not tell children what not to do," etc.). Thus, many teachers were confused about their own practices.

In order to clear up these misunderstandings, in 1997, the Ministry formed a study group, which examined "The Future Direction of Kindergartens' Education Reflecting Social Change." As a result, in December 1998, Yochien Kyoiku Yoryo, the National Curriculum Standards for Kindergarten Education, was revised. The standards stated that "the environment should be created with the intention of ensuring voluntary activities among children based on a understanding and anticipation of the individual actions of each child" (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2001). Teachers, therefore, were expected to create a physical and psychological environment that reflected the importance of the relationship between a child and other people. Teachers also would play various roles in response to individual children's activities, and strive to make activities more enriching.

Balancing Children's Autonomy and Teachers' Intention: Current and Future Issues

In the field of early childhood education in Japan, traditionally, the idea of "autonomy" in children's activities has been supported by preschool teachers" cultural perspectives and values about working toward educating and rearing young children. However, educators now argue that the fundamental principle of early childhood education is not to strive for teaching young children to listen to teachers without thinking. Rather, we need to work toward having children develop by themselves. Needless to say, in order to change this fundamental principle, we must shift the way we view children. We have to keep in mind that structuring the curriculum guidelines requires keeping an appropriate balance between children's autonomy and teachers' intention. Therefore, the curriculum also needs to shift from pre-packaged ones to developing individualized ones.

To make this happen, Japanese early childhood educators are now challenged to view kindergarten as an early educational center in a community. In other words, the role of kindergarten is to provide unique educational and caring services for families of young children. Many kindergartens have created programs for families, such as a woodworking day when families and local carpenters make playthings for the children. Some kindergartens invite mothers to spend a whole day with the children. Through these kinds of activities, teachers can learn from children and families in order to create the most appropriate curriculum. That is, the curriculum and practice are living within the lives of children and their families (Mori, 2001).

In addition, teacher education programs have shifted from emphasizing students' acquisition of how-to skills to developing insightful learners who can work with their own environment. One of the required courses, Sogo Enshu ("Synthetic Seminar"), provides education students with different kinds of hands-on activities, similar to the project approach-style learning activities, such as growing vegetables and flowers, engaging in a campaign to clean up mountains and rivers, and developing toys from wood. The students also volunteer at a children's hospital, go camping in the mountains, and create materials for children in developing countries. Through those life-oriented experiences, future teachers will begin to see themselves as curriculum developers who listen to children's interests and needs.

While it is not an easy path, we believe if one changes, others will change. To help achieve this goal, those of us who educate children need to have dialogue not only domestically, but also internationally.

References

Japanese students are falling lower on the international ladder of academic ability. (2004, December 12). Asahi Shinbun Newspaper, p. 1.

Blackwood, P. E. (1988). Helen Heffernan [biography]. Childhood Education, 65, 101-104.

Kurahashi, S. (1954). Yochien shintei. [Philosophy of kindergarten education]. Froebel-kan Publishing.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2001). National curriculum standards for kindergartens. Tokyo: Author.

Monbusho, the Ministry of Education. (1989). Yochien kyoiku yoryo. [National curriculum standards for kindergartens]. Tokyo: Author.

Mori, M. (2001). Gendai shakai ni ikiru hoikusha. In Y. Oda & M. Mori (Eds.)., Hoikusharon [Theories of Early Childhood Practitioners] (pp. 1-24). Koseikan.

Moriue, S. (1984). Jido chushinshugi no hoiku. [Child-centered early childhood practice]. Kyoiku Shuppan Publishing.

Oda, Y. (2001). Atarashii jidai wo hirakuyojikyouikugaku nyumon. [Entry for studying early childhood education to cultivate new era]. Toyokan Shuppansha.

Oda, Y. (2003). Youjikyoiku saisei [Reviving early childhood education]. Shogakkan.

Oda, Y. (2005). Tracing the development of Japanese kindergarten education--Focusing on changes of contents and curriculum. Research note at the National Institute of Educational Policy.

Sakamoto, H. (1976). Kurahash Sozo, sonohito to shisou [Kurahashi Sozo, his work and philosophy]. Froebel-kan Publishing.

Yukawa, K. (2003). Nihon no hoiku no hensen. [Changes of early childhood education and care in Japan]. In Y. Oda, M. Kaminaga, & M. Mori (Eds.). Hoikugenri [Principles of early childhood education and care] (pp. 134-144). Koseikan.

Yutaka Oda is President, The National Institution of Special Education, Yokosuka, Japan.

Mari Mori is Associate Professor, Department of Human Sciences, Toyo Eiwa University , Yokohama, Japan.